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2034 lines
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2034 lines
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8 months ago
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<div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" >
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<input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" >
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<label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span>
|
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<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span>
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<div class="vector-menu-content">
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<li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Romanization+of+Arabic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Romanization+of+Arabic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li>
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</div>
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<div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" >
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<div class="vector-menu-heading">
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Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a>
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<div class="vector-menu-content">
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<li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li>
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</header>
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<div class="mw-page-container">
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<div class="mw-page-container-inner">
|
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<div class="vector-sitenotice-container">
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<div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div>
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<div class="vector-column-start">
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<div class="vector-main-menu-container">
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<div id="mw-navigation">
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<nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site" role="navigation">
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<div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container">
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</nav>
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</div>
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</div>
|
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<div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container">
|
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<nav id="mw-panel-toc" role="navigation" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark">
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<div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container">
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<div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element">
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<div
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class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned"
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data-feature-name="toc-pinned"
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data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc"
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>
|
||
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<h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2>
|
||
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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button>
|
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<button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button>
|
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</div>
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<ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list">
|
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<li id="toc-mw-content-text"
|
||
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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">
|
||
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<a href="#" class="vector-toc-link">
|
||
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<div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div>
|
||
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</a>
|
||
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</li>
|
||
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<li id="toc-Method"
|
||
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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Method">
|
||
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<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span>Method</div>
|
||
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</a>
|
||
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|
||
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<ul id="toc-Method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
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</ul>
|
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</li>
|
||
|
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<li id="toc-Romanization_standards_and_systems"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanization_standards_and_systems">
|
||
|
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<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span>Romanization standards and systems</div>
|
||
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</a>
|
||
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|
||
|
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<button aria-controls="toc-Romanization_standards_and_systems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-icon vector-icon--x-small mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
|
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<span>Toggle Romanization standards and systems subsection</span>
|
||
|
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</button>
|
||
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|
||
|
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<ul id="toc-Romanization_standards_and_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
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<li id="toc-Early_Romanization"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Romanization">
|
||
|
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<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span>Early Romanization</div>
|
||
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</a>
|
||
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<ul id="toc-Early_Romanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
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</ul>
|
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</li>
|
||
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<li id="toc-Mixed_digraphic_and_diacritical"
|
||
|
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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mixed_digraphic_and_diacritical">
|
||
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<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span>Mixed digraphic and diacritical</div>
|
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</a>
|
||
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||
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<ul id="toc-Mixed_digraphic_and_diacritical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
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</ul>
|
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</li>
|
||
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<li id="toc-Fully_diacritical"
|
||
|
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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fully_diacritical">
|
||
|
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<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span>Fully diacritical</div>
|
||
|
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</a>
|
||
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|
||
|
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<ul id="toc-Fully_diacritical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
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</ul>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
||
|
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<li id="toc-ASCII-based"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ASCII-based">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span>ASCII-based</div>
|
||
|
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</a>
|
||
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|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-ASCII-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
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</ul>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
||
|
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<li id="toc-Comparison_table"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_table">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span>Comparison table</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
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|
||
|
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<ul id="toc-Comparison_table-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
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</ul>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
||
|
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</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-Romanization_issues"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanization_issues">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span>Romanization issues</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<button aria-controls="toc-Romanization_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-icon vector-icon--x-small mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
|
|
<span>Toggle Romanization issues subsection</span>
|
||
|
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</button>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
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<ul id="toc-Romanization_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
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<li id="toc-Vowels"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span>Vowels</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
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</ul>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-Transliteration_vs._transcription"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transliteration_vs._transcription">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span>Transliteration vs. transcription</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
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<ul id="toc-Transliteration_vs._transcription-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
||
|
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</ul>
|
||
|
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</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-Examples"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span>Examples</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span>Arabic alphabet and nationalism</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<button aria-controls="toc-Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-icon vector-icon--x-small mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span>
|
||
|
|
<span>Toggle Arabic alphabet and nationalism subsection</span>
|
||
|
|
</button>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-Lebanon"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lebanon">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span>Lebanon</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-Lebanon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-Egypt"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span>Egypt</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-See_also"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span>See also</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-References"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span>References</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
<li id="toc-External_links"
|
||
|
|
class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded">
|
||
|
|
<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links">
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-toc-text">
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span>External links</div>
|
||
|
|
</a>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</li>
|
||
|
|
</ul>
|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
|
</nav>
|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
|
<div class="mw-content-container">
|
||
|
|
<main id="content" class="mw-body" role="main">
|
||
|
|
<header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar">
|
||
|
|
<nav role="navigation" aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark">
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" >
|
||
|
|
<input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" >
|
||
|
|
<label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span>
|
||
|
|
</label>
|
||
|
|
<div class="vector-dropdown-content">
|
||
|
|
|
||
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|
||
|
|
<div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container">
|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
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|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
|
</div>
|
||
|
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|
||
|
|
</nav>
|
||
|
|
<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Romanization of Arabic</span></h1>
|
||
|
|
|
||
|
|
<div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" >
|
||
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<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg/400px-Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg/600px-Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg/800px-Google_Ngrams_chart_showing_the_changing_Romanization_of_Arabic_vowels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2221" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Google_Ngrams" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Ngrams">Google Ngrams</a> chart showing the changing English romanization of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Arabic short vowels</a> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـَ</a></i></span>, <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـِ</a></i></span> and <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـُ</a></i></span>) between the 19th and 20th centuries, using <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مُسْلِم</span></span> (<a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>) and <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مُحَمَّد</span></span> (<a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>) as examples.</figcaption></figure>
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<hr /><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration_of_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transliteration of Arabic">Transliteration</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Numerals</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numeration</a></li></ul></td>
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</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic-script_sidebar" title="Template:Arabic-script sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic-script_sidebar" title="Template talk:Arabic-script sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic-script_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic-script sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
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<p>The <b>romanization of Arabic</b> is the systematic rendering of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">written</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">spoken</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>. Romanized Arabic is used for various purposes, among them transcription of names and titles, <a href="/wiki/Cataloging" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataloging">cataloging</a> Arabic language works, <a href="/wiki/Language_education" title="Language education">language education</a> when used instead of or alongside the Arabic script, and representation of the language in scientific publications by <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguists</a>. These formal systems, which often make use of <a href="/wiki/Diacritics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritics">diacritics</a> and non-standard Latin characters and are used in academic settings or for the benefit of non-speakers, contrast with informal means of written communication used by speakers such as the Latin-based <a href="/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" title="Arabic chat alphabet">Arabic chat alphabet</a>.
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</p><p>Different systems and strategies have been developed to address the inherent problems of rendering various Arabic varieties in the Latin script. Examples of such problems are the symbols for Arabic <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> that do not exist in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> languages; the means of representing the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_definite_article" title="Arabic definite article">Arabic definite article</a>, which is always spelled the same way in written Arabic but has numerous pronunciations in the spoken language depending on context; and the representation of short vowels (usually <i>i u</i> or <i>e o</i>, accounting for variations such as <i><a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>/Moslem</i> or <i><a href="/wiki/Mohammed" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed">Mohammed</a>/Muhammad/Mohamed</i>).
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</p>
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<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" />
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Method">Method</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Romanization is often termed "transliteration", but this is not technically correct.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Transliteration</a></i> is the direct representation of foreign <i>letters</i> using Latin symbols, while most systems for romanizing Arabic are actually <i><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">transcription</a></i> systems, which represent the <i>sound</i> of the language, since short vowels and geminate consonants, for example, do not usually appear in Arabic writing. As an example, the above rendering <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">munāẓaratu l-ḥurūfi l-ʻarabīyah</i></span></i> of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">مناظرة الحروف العربية</span> is a transcription, indicating the pronunciation; an example transliteration would be <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">mnaẓrḧ alḥrwf alʻrbyḧ</i></span></i>.
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Romanization_standards_and_systems">Romanization standards and systems</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Romanization standards and systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Principal standards and systems are:
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_Romanization">Early Romanization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Romanization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png/220px-Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="354" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png/330px-Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png/440px-Doctrina_cristiana_en_lengua_ar%C3%A1biga_y_castellana.png 2x" data-file-width="1101" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Christian doctrine in Arabic and Castilian language</i> (1566) by <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_P%C3%A9rez_de_Ayala" title="Martín Pérez de Ayala">Pérez de Ayala</a> uses an innovative system for transcribing Valencian Arabic that has been called "the first Western system of Arabic scientific transcription" by <a href="/wiki/Federico_Corriente" title="Federico Corriente">Federico Corriente</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
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<p>Early Romanization of the Arabic language was standardized in the various <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_dictionaries#Bilingual_dictionaries" title="List of Arabic dictionaries">bilingual Arabic-European dictionaries</a> of the 17–19th centuries:
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</p>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alcal%C3%A1" title="Pedro de Alcalá">Pedro de Alcalá</a>, <i>Vocabulista</i>, 1505. A Spanish-Arabic glossary in transcription only.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipiński_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipiński-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Schindler" title="Valentin Schindler">Valentin Schindler</a>, <i>Lexicon Pentaglotton: Hebraicum, Chaldicum, Syriacum, Talmudico-Rabbinicum, et Arabicum</i>, 1612. Arabic lemmas were printed in Hebrew characters.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipiński_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipiński-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Franciscus_Raphelengius" title="Franciscus Raphelengius">Franciscus Raphelengius</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_84yAEE271K8C"><i>Lexicon Arabicum</i></a>, Leiden 1613. The first printed dictionary of the Arabic language in Arabic characters.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipiński_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipiński-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Golius" title="Jacobus Golius">Jacobus Golius</a>, <i>Lexicon Arabico-Latinum</i>, Leiden 1653. The dominant Arabic dictionary in Europe for almost two centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Lipiński_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipiński-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Freytag" title="Georg Freytag">Georg Freytag</a>, <i>Lexicon Arabico-Latinum</i>, praesertim ex Djeuharii Firuzubadiique et aliorum libris confectum I–IV, Halle 1830–1837<sup id="cite_ref-Lipiński_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipiński-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_William_Lane" title="Edward William Lane">Edward William Lane</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Arabic%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="Arabic–English Lexicon">Arabic–English Lexicon</a></i>, 8 vols, London-Edinburgh 1863–1893. Highly influential, but incomplete (stops at Kaf)<sup id="cite_ref-Lipiński_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lipiński-3">[3]</a></sup></li></ul>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mixed_digraphic_and_diacritical">Mixed digraphic and diacritical</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mixed digraphic and diacritical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">Digraph (orthography)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">Diacritic</a></div>
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<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/BGN/PCGN_romanization" title="BGN/PCGN romanization">BGN/PCGN</a></b> romanization (1956).<sup id="cite_ref-BGN-PCGN_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGN-PCGN-4">[4]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b><a href="/wiki/UNGEGN" class="mw-redirect" title="UNGEGN">UNGEGN</a></b> (1972). United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, or "Variant A of the Amended Beirut System". Adopted from BGN/PCGN.<sup id="cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNGEGN-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
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<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Institut_G%C3%A9ographique_National" class="mw-redirect" title="Institut Géographique National">IGN</a> System 1973</b> or "Variant B of the Amended Beirut System", that conforms to the French orthography and is preferred to the Variant A in French-speaking countries as in Maghreb and Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNGEGN-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b><abbr title="Arab delegations to the Eighth UN Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names in Berlin (2002)">ADEGN</abbr></b> romanization (2007) is different from UNGEGN in two ways: (1) ظ is d͟h instead of z̧; (2) the cedilla is replaced by a sub-macron (_) in all the characters with the cedilla.<sup id="cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNGEGN-5">[5]</a></sup></li></ul></li>
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<li><b><a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a></b> (first published 1991), from the <a href="/wiki/American_Library_Association" title="American Library Association">American Library Association</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ALA-LC_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALA-LC-8">[8]</a></sup> This romanization is close to the romanization of the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Morgenl%C3%A4ndische_Gesellschaft" title="Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft">Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft</a></i></span> and <a href="/wiki/Hans_Wehr" title="Hans Wehr">Hans Wehr</a>, which is used internationally in scientific publications by <a href="/wiki/Arabist" title="Arabist">Arabists</a>.
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<ul><li><b>IJMES</b>, used by <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>, very similar to ALA-LC.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup></li>
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<li><b>EI</b>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a></i> (1st ed., 1913–1938; 2nd ed., 1960–2005).<sup id="cite_ref-EI_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EI-10">[10]</a></sup></li></ul></li></ul>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fully_diacritical">Fully diacritical</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Fully diacritical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<ul><li><b>DMG</b> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Morgenl%C3%A4ndische_Gesellschaft" title="Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft">Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft</a></i></span>, 1935), adopted by the International Convention of Orientalist Scholars in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-DGM1935_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DGM1935-11">[11]</a></sup>
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<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">DIN 31635</a></b> (1982), developed by the German Institute for Standardization (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Institut_f%C3%BCr_Normung" title="Deutsches Institut für Normung">Deutsches Institut für Normung</a></i></span>).</li>
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<li><b><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wehr_transliteration" title="Hans Wehr transliteration">Hans Wehr transliteration</a></b> (1961, 1994), a modification to DIN 31635.</li>
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<li><b>EALL</b>, <i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics</i> (edited by Kees Versteegh, Brill, 2006–2009).<sup id="cite_ref-EALL_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EALL-12">[12]</a></sup></li>
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<li>Spanish romanization, identical to DMG/DIN with the exception of three letters: ǧ > ŷ, ḫ > j, ġ > g.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup></li></ul></li>
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<li><b><a href="/wiki/ISO_233" title="ISO 233">ISO 233</a></b> (1984), letter-to-letter; vowels are transliterated only if they are shown with diacritics, otherwise they are omitted.
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<ul><li><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_233-2" class="extiw" title="fr:ISO 233-2">ISO 233-2</a> (1993), simplified transliteration; vowels are always shown.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (October 2015)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=BS_4280&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="BS 4280 (page does not exist)">BS 4280</a> (1968), developed by the <a href="/wiki/BSI_Group" title="BSI Group">British Standards Institution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup></li></ul>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="ASCII-based">ASCII-based</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: ASCII-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ArabTeX" title="ArabTeX">ArabTeX</a> (since 1992) has been modelled closely after the transliteration standards <a href="/wiki/ISO/R_233" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO/R 233">ISO/R 233</a> and DIN 31635.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Buckwalter_Transliteration" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckwalter Transliteration">Buckwalter Transliteration</a> (1990s), developed at ALPNET by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tim_Buckwalter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tim Buckwalter (page does not exist)">Tim Buckwalter</a>; does not require <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" title="Arabic chat alphabet">Arabic <b>chat</b> alphabet</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-EALL_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EALL-12">[12]</a></sup> an ad hoc solution for conveniently entering Arabic using a Latin keyboard.</li></ul>
|
||
|
|
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Comparison_table">Comparison table</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Comparison table"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
|
|
<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;">
|
||
|
|
<tbody><tr>
|
||
|
|
<th>Letter
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th>Name
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/BGN/PCGN_romanization" title="BGN/PCGN romanization">BGN/<br />PCGN</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Standardization_of_Geographical_Names" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names">UNGEGN</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">EI</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wehr_transliteration" title="Hans Wehr transliteration">Wehr</a><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_1"><a href="#endnote_1">1</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><abbr title="Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics">EALL</abbr>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><abbr title="British Standard">BS</abbr>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">DIN</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/ISO_233" title="ISO 233">ISO</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/ArabTeX" title="ArabTeX">ArabTeX</a>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<th><a href="/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" title="Arabic chat alphabet">Arabizi</a><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_2"><a href="#endnote_2">2</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Egyptian_Romanized_Arabic_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egyptian_Romanized_Arabic-19">[19]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><a href="/wiki/%D8%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="ء">ء</a></span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_3"><a href="#endnote_3">3</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0621</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">hamzah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3"><span title="Modifier letter apostrophe" style="font-size:160%">ʼ</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_4"><a href="#endnote_4">4</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʾ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter apostrophe" style="font-size:160%">ʼ</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_4"><a href="#endnote_4">4</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʾ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter apostrophe" style="font-size:160%">ʼ</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_4"><a href="#endnote_4">4</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʾ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter vertical line" style="font-size:160%">ˈ</span>, <span title="Modifier letter low vertical line" style="font-size:160%">ˌ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Apostrophe" style="font-size:140%">'</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>2
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ا</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0627</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="8">ā
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʾ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>A
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>a/e/é
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ب</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0628</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">bā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">b
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ت</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>062A</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">tā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">t
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ث</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>062B</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">thā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4">th<span class="nowrap"> </span>(t͟h)<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_5"><a href="#endnote_5">5</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="5">ṯ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>_t
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>s/th/t
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ج</span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_12"><a href="#endnote_12">12</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>062C</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">jīm</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3">j
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>dj<span class="nowrap"> </span>(d͟j)<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_5"><a href="#endnote_5">5</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">j<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_6"><a href="#endnote_6">6</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3">ǧ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>^g
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>j/g/dj
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ح</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>062D</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḥā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">ḩ<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_7"><a href="#endnote_7">7</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="7">ḥ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>.h
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>7/h
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">خ</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>062E</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">khā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4">kh<span class="nowrap"> </span>(k͟h)<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_5"><a href="#endnote_5">5</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ḵ<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_6"><a href="#endnote_6">6</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>x
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ẖ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ḫ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ẖ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>_h
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>kh/7'/5
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">د</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>062F</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">dāl</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">d
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ذ</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0630</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">dhāl</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4">dh<span class="nowrap"> </span>(d͟h)<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_5"><a href="#endnote_5">5</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="5">ḏ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>_d
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>z/dh/th/d
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ر</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0631</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">rā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">r
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ز</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0632</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">zayn/zāy</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">z
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">س</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0633</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">sīn</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">s
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ش</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0634</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">shīn</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4">sh<span class="nowrap"> </span>(s͟h)<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_5"><a href="#endnote_5">5</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="5">š
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>^s
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>sh/ch/$
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ص</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0635</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ṣād</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">ş<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_7"><a href="#endnote_7">7</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="7">ṣ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>.s
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>s/9
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ض</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0636</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḍād</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">ḑ<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_7"><a href="#endnote_7">7</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="7">ḍ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>.d
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>d/9'/D
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ط</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0637</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ṭā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">ţ<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_7"><a href="#endnote_7">7</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="7">ṭ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>.t
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>t/6/T
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ظ</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0638</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ẓā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a></span>~<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">z̧<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_7"><a href="#endnote_7">7</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3">ẓ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ḏ̣/ẓ<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_11"><a href="#endnote_11">11</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3">ẓ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>.z
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>z/dh/6'/th
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ع</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0639</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><big>ʻ</big>ayn</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3"><span title="Modifier letter turned comma" style="font-size:160%">ʻ</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_4"><a href="#endnote_4">4</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter left half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʿ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter reversed comma" style="font-size:160%">ʽ</span><span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_4"><a href="#endnote_4">4</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4"><span title="Modifier letter left half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʿ</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Grave accent" style="font-size:140%">`</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>3
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">غ</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>063A</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ghayn</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4">gh<span class="nowrap"> </span>(g͟h)<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_5"><a href="#endnote_5">5</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ḡ<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_6"><a href="#endnote_6">6</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ġ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ḡ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">ġ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>.g
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>gh/3'/8
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><a href="/wiki/%D9%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ف">ف</a></span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_8"><a href="#endnote_8">8</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0641</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">fā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">f
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a></span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_8"><a href="#endnote_8">8</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0642</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">qāf</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="10">q
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>2/g/q/8/9
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ك</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0643</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">kāf</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">k
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ل</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0644</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">lām</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">l
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">م</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0645</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">mīm</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">m
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ن</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0646</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">nūn</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">n
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ه</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0647</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">hā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="11">h
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">و</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0648</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">wāw</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="9">w; ū
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>w; U
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>w/ou/oo/u/o
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><a href="/wiki/%D9%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="ي">ي</a></span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_9"><a href="#endnote_9">9</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064A</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">yā<big>ʼ</big></i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="9">y; ī
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>y; <span style="font-family:'Droid Sans', Tahoma, Verdana, serif">I</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>y/i/ee/ei/ai
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">آ</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0622</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif maddah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʔaː</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="5">ā, <span title="Modifier letter apostrophe" style="font-size:140%">ʼ</span>ā
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3"><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:140%">ʾ</span>ā
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:140%">ʾ</span>â
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Apostrophe"><big>'</big></span>A
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>2a/aa
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ة</span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0629</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">tā<big>ʼ</big> marbūṭah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">h</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="4">h; t
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>—; t
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3">h; t
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ẗ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>T
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>a/e(h); et/at
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Al-" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-">ال</a></span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0627</code><code>0644</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif lām</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><small><i>(var.)</i></small>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="8">al-<span class="nowrap"> </span><sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_10"><a href="#endnote_10">10</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:140%">ʾ</span>al
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>al-
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>el/al
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><a href="/wiki/%D9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="ى">ى</a></span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_9"><a href="#endnote_9">9</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0649</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif maqṣūrah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="3">á
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="5">ā
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ỳ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>_A
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>a
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th colspan="15">Vocalization
|
||
|
|
</th></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـَ</a></i></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064E</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">fatḥah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="10">a
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>a/e/é
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـِ</a></i></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0650</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">kasrah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="10">i
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>i/e/é
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـُ</a></i></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_13"><a href="#endnote_13">13</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064F</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḍammah</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="10">u
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ou/o/u
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـَا</a></span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064E</code><code>0627</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">fatḥah alif</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="8">ā
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>aʼ
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>A/aa
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>a
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـِي</a></span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>0650</code><code>064A</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">kasrah yāʼ</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="8">ī
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>iy
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>I/iy
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>i/ee
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـُو</a></span></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_13"><a href="#endnote_13">13</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064F</code><code>0648</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḍammah wāw</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="8">ū
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>uw
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>U/uw
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ou/oo/u
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـَي</a></span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064E</code><code>064A</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">fatḥah yāʼ</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aj</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="10">ay
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ay/ai/ey/ei
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـَو</a></span></span></big>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064E</code><code>0648</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">fatḥah wāw</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aw</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="10">aw
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>aw/aou
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـً</a></i></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_14"><a href="#endnote_14">14</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064B</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">fatḥatān</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">an</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">a<sup>n</sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="6">an
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>á
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>aN
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>an
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـٍ</a></i></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_14"><a href="#endnote_14">14</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064D</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">kasratān</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">in</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">i<sup>n</sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="6">in
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>í
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>iN
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>in/en
|
||
|
|
</td></tr>
|
||
|
|
<tr>
|
||
|
|
<th><big><span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">ـٌ</a></i></span></big> ‎<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_14"><a href="#endnote_14">14</a></sup>
|
||
|
|
</th>
|
||
|
|
<td><code>064C</code>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ḍammatān</i></span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">un</span>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="2">u<sup>n</sup>
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td colspan="6">un
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>ú
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>uN
|
||
|
|
</td>
|
||
|
|
<td>oun/on/oon/un
|
||
|
|
</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_1"><b><a href="#ref_1">^1</a></b></span> Hans Wehr transliteration does not capitalize the first letter at the beginning of sentences nor in proper names.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_2"><b><a href="#ref_2">^2</a></b></span> The <i>chat</i> table is only a demonstration and is based on the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">spoken varieties</a> which vary considerably from <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Literary Arabic</a> on which the IPA table and the rest of the transliterations are based.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_3"><b><a href="#ref_3">^3</a></b></span> Review <i><a href="/wiki/Hamzah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamzah">hamzah</a></i> for its various forms.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_4"><b><a href="#ref_4">^4</a></b></span> Neither standard defines which <a href="/wiki/Code_point" title="Code point">code point</a> to use for <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">hamzah</i></span></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin"><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʻayn</i></span></a></i>. Appropriate Unicode points would be <a href="/wiki/Modifier_letter_apostrophe" title="Modifier letter apostrophe">modifier letter apostrophe</a> ⟨<span title="Modifier letter apostrophe" style="font-size:160%">ʼ</span>⟩ and <a href="/wiki/Modifier_letter_turned_comma" title="Modifier letter turned comma">modifier letter turned comma</a> ⟨<span title="Modifier letter turned comma" style="font-size:160%">ʻ</span>⟩ (for the UNGEGN and BGN/PCGN) or <a href="/wiki/Modifier_letter_reversed_comma" class="mw-redirect" title="Modifier letter reversed comma">modifier letter reversed comma</a> ⟨<span title="Modifier letter reversed comma" style="font-size:160%">ʽ</span>⟩ (for the Wehr and Survey of Egypt System (SES)), all of which Unicode defines as letters. Often right and left single <a href="/wiki/Quotation_mark" title="Quotation mark">quotation marks</a> ⟨<span title="Right single quotation mark" style="font-size:160%">’</span>⟩, ⟨<span title="Left single quotation mark" style="font-size:160%">‘</span>⟩ are used instead, but Unicode defines those as punctuation marks, and they can cause compatibility issues. The glottal stop (<i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">hamzah</i></span></i>) in these romanizations is not written word-initially.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_5"><b><a href="#ref_5">^5</a></b></span> In <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> digraphs are underlined, that is t͟h, d͟j, k͟h, d͟h, s͟h, g͟h. In BGN/PCGN on the contrary the sequences <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ـتـهـ, ـكـهـ, ـدهـ, ـسهـ</span></span> may be romanized with <a href="/wiki/Middle_dot" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle dot">middle dot</a> as <i>t·h</i>, <i>k·h</i>, <i>d·h</i>, <i>s·h</i> respectively.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_6"><b><a href="#ref_6">^6</a></b></span> In the original German edition of his dictionary (1952) Wehr used ǧ, ḫ, ġ for j, ḵ, ḡ respectively (that is all the letters used are equal to DMG/<a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">DIN 31635</a>). The variant presented in the table is from the English translation of the dictionary (1961).</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_7"><b><a href="#ref_7">^7</a></b></span> BGN/PCGN allows use of <a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)#Underdot" title="Dot (diacritic)">underdots</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Cedilla" title="Cedilla">cedilla</a>.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_8"><b><a href="#ref_8">^8</a></b></span> <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʼ</i></span></i> and <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">qāf</i></span></i> are traditionally written in <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Northwestern Africa</a> as <big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ڢ</span></span></big> and <big><span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ڧـ ـڧـ ـٯ</span></span></big>, respectively, while the latter's dot is only added initially or medially.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_9"><b><a href="#ref_9">^9</a></b></span> In Egypt, Sudan, and sometimes in other regions, the standard form for final-<i><a href="/wiki/Y%C4%81%CA%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Yāʼ"><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">yāʼ</i></span></a></i> is only <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ى</span></span> <small>(without dots)</small> in handwriting and print, for both final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-iː/</span> and final <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-aː/</span>. <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl"><a href="/wiki/%D9%89" class="mw-redirect" title="ى">ى</a></span></span> for the latter pronunciation, is called <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ألف لينة</span></span> <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif layyinah</i></span></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arz-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Egyptian Arabic">[ˈʔælef læjˈjenæ]</a></span>, 'flexible alif'.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_10"><b><a href="#ref_10">^10</a></b></span> The <a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">sun and moon letters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamza#Hamzat_al-waṣl_(_ٱ_)" title="Hamza">hamzat waṣl</a> pronunciation rules apply, although it is acceptable to ignore them. The UN system and ALA-LC prefer lowercase <i>a</i> and hyphens: <i>al-Baṣrah, ar-Riyāḍ</i>; BGN/PCGN prefers uppercase <i>A</i> and no hyphens: <i>Al Baṣrah, Ar Riyāḍ</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNGEGN-5">[5]</a></sup></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_11"><b><a href="#ref_11">^11</a></b></span> The EALL suggests ẓ "in proper names" (volume 4, page 517).</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_12"><b><a href="#ref_12">^12</a></b></span> <i>BGN/PCGN</i>, <i>UNGEGN</i>, <i>ALA-LC</i>, and <i>DIN 31635</i> use a normal <span class="nowrap">⟨g⟩</span> for <span class="nowrap">⟨<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ج</span></span>⟩</span> when romanizing Egyptian names or toponyms that are expectedly pronounced with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/</span>.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_13"><b><a href="#ref_13">^13</a></b></span> <i>BGN/PCGN</i>, <i>UNGEGN</i>, <i>ALA-LC</i>, and <i>DIN 31635</i> use the French-based <span class="nowrap">⟨ou⟩</span> for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u(:)</a>/</span> in Francophone Arabic speaking countries in names and toponyms.</li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_14"><b><a href="#ref_14">^14</a></b></span> <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> is ignored in all romanizations in names and toponyms.</li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Romanization_issues">Romanization issues</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Romanization issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Any <a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">romanization</a> system has to make a number of decisions which are dependent on its intended field of application.
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vowels">Vowels</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>One basic problem is that written Arabic is normally <a href="/wiki/Harakat" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakat">unvocalized</a>; i.e., many of the <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowels</a> are not written out, and must be supplied by a reader familiar with the language. Hence unvocalized <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Arabic writing</a> does not give a reader unfamiliar with the language sufficient information for accurate pronunciation. As a result, a pure <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a>, e.g., rendering <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">قطر</span></span> as <b><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">qṭr</i></span></b>, is meaningless to an untrained reader. For this reason, <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcriptions</a> are generally used that add vowels, e.g. <b><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">qaṭar</i></span></b>. However, unvocalized systems match exactly to written Arabic, unlike vocalized systems such as Arabic chat, which some claim detracts from one's ability to spell.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
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</p>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Transliteration_vs._transcription">Transliteration vs. transcription</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transliteration vs. transcription"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<p>Most uses of romanization call for <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(linguistics)" title="Transcription (linguistics)">transcription</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a>: Instead of transliterating each written letter, they try to reproduce the sound of the words according to the orthography rules of the target language: <i>Qaṭar</i>. This applies equally to scientific and popular applications. A pure transliteration would need to omit vowels (e.g. <i>qṭr</i>), making the result difficult to interpret except for a subset of trained readers fluent in Arabic. Even if vowels are added, a transliteration system would still need to distinguish between multiple ways of spelling the same sound in the Arabic script, e.g. <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif</i></span></i> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar"><span style="font-family:serif; font-size:large">ا</span></span></span> vs. <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif maqṣūrah</i></span></i> <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ى</span></span> for the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span> <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ā</i></span></i>, and the six different ways (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ء إ أ آ ؤ ئ</span></span>) of writing the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">hamza</a>, usually transcribed <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʼ </i></span></i>). This sort of detail is needlessly confusing, except in a very few situations (e.g., typesetting text in the Arabic script).
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</p><p>Most issues related to the romanization of Arabic are about transliterating vs. transcribing; others, about what should be romanized:
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</p>
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<ul><li>Some transliterations ignore <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Al-" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-">al-</a></i> before the "<a href="/wiki/Sun_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun letters">sun letters</a>", and may be easily misread by non-Arabic speakers. For instance, "the light" <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">النور</span></span> <i>an-nūr</i> would be more literally transliterated along the lines of <i>alnūr</i>. In the transcription <i>an-nūr</i>, a hyphen is added and the unpronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/</span> removed for the convenience of the uninformed non-Arabic speaker, who would otherwise pronounce an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, perhaps not understanding that <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> in <i>nūr</i> is <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">geminated</a>. Alternatively, if the <a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">shaddah</a> is not transliterated (since it is strictly not a letter), a strictly literal transliteration would be <i>alnūr</i>, which presents similar problems for the uninformed non-Arabic speaker.</li>
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<li>A transliteration should render the "closed tāʼ" (<i><a href="/wiki/Ta%27_marbuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ta' marbuta">tāʼ marbūṭah</a></i>, <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ة</span></span>) faithfully. Many transcriptions render the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span> as <i>a</i> or <i>ah</i> and <i>t</i> when it denotes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/at/</span>.
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_233" title="ISO 233">ISO 233</a> has a unique symbol, ẗ.</li></ul></li>
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<li>"Restricted alif" (<i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">alif maqṣūrah</i></span></i>, <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ى</span></span>) should be transliterated with an <a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a>, <i>á</i>, differentiating it from regular alif <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ا</span></span>, but it is transcribed in many schemes like alif, <i>ā</i>, because it stands for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aː/</span>.</li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a>: what is true elsewhere is also true for nunation: transliteration renders what is seen, transcription what is heard, when in the Arabic script, it is written with diacritics, not by letters, or omitted.</li></ul>
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<p>A transcription may reflect the language as spoken, typically rendering names, for example, by the people of Baghdad (<a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Arabic">Baghdad Arabic</a>), or the official standard (<a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Literary Arabic</a>) as spoken by a <a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">preacher</a> in the mosque or a TV newsreader. A transcription is free to add phonological (such as vowels) or morphological (such as word boundaries) information. Transcriptions will also vary depending on the writing conventions of the target language; compare English <i><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a></i> with German <i>Omar Chajjam</i>, both for <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عمر خيام</span></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʕumar xajjaːm/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ˈʕomɑr xæjˈjæːm]</a></span> (unvocalized <i><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿmr ḫyām</i></span></i>, vocalized <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʻUmar Khayyām</i></span></i>).
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</p><p>A transliteration is ideally fully reversible: a machine should be able to transliterate it back into Arabic. A transliteration can be considered as flawed for any one of the following reasons:
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</p>
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<ul><li>A "loose" transliteration is ambiguous, rendering several Arabic phonemes with an identical transliteration, or such that digraphs for a single phoneme (such as <i>dh gh kh sh th</i> rather than <i>ḏ ġ ḫ š ṯ</i>) may be confused with two adjacent consonants—but this problem is resolved in the <a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a> romanization system, where the <a href="/wiki/Prime_(symbol)" title="Prime (symbol)">prime symbol</a> <span title="Prime symbol" style="font-size:140%">ʹ</span> is used to separate two consonants when they do not form a digraph;<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup> for example: <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">أَكْرَمَتْها</span></span> <i><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">akramatʹhā</i></span></i> ('she honored her'), in which the <i>t</i> and <i>h</i> are two distinct consonantal sounds.</li>
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<li>Symbols representing phonemes may be considered too similar (e.g., <span title="Grave accent" style="font-size:140%">ʻ</span> and <span title="Apostrophe" style="font-size:140%">'</span> or <span title="Modifier letter left half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʿ</span> and <span title="Modifier letter right half ring" style="font-size:170%">ʾ</span> for <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ع</span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">ʻayn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hamzah" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamzah">hamzah</a>);</li>
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<li>ASCII transliterations using capital letters to disambiguate phonemes are easy to type, but may be considered unaesthetic.</li></ul>
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<p>A fully accurate transcription may not be necessary for native Arabic speakers, as they would be able to pronounce names and sentences correctly anyway, but it can be very useful for those not fully familiar with spoken Arabic and who are familiar with the Roman alphabet. An accurate transliteration serves as a valuable stepping stone for learning, pronouncing correctly, and distinguishing phonemes. It is a useful tool for anyone who is familiar with the sounds of Arabic but not fully conversant in the language.
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</p><p>One criticism is that a fully accurate system would require special learning that most do not have to actually pronounce names correctly, and that with a lack of a universal romanization system they will not be pronounced correctly by non-native speakers anyway. The precision will be lost if special characters are not replicated and if a reader is not familiar with Arabic pronunciation.
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</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Examples">Examples</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<p>Examples in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Literary Arabic</a>:
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</p>
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<table class="wikitable">
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<tbody><tr>
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<th><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a>
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</th>
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<td style="font-size:larger"><span title="Standard Arabic-language text"><span lang="arb" dir="rtl">أمجد كان له قصر</span></span></td>
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<td style="font-size:larger"><span title="Standard Arabic-language text"><span lang="arb" dir="rtl">إلى المملكة المغربية</span></span>
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</td></tr>
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<tr>
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<th>Arabic with <a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">diacritics</a><br /><small>(normally omitted)</small>
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</th>
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<td style="font-size:larger"><span title="Standard Arabic-language text"><span lang="arb" dir="rtl">أَمْجَدُ كَانَ لَهُ قَصْر</span></span></td>
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<td style="font-size:larger"><span title="Standard Arabic-language text"><span lang="arb" dir="rtl">إِلَى الْمَمْلَكَةِ الْمَغْرِبِيَّة</span></span>
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</td></tr>
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<tr>
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<th><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>
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</th>
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<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arb-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[/ʔamdʒadu<span class="wrap"> </span>kaːna<span class="wrap"> </span>lahuː<span class="wrap"> </span>qasˤr/]</a></span></td>
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<td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arb-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[/ʔila‿l.mamlakati‿l.maɣribij.jah/]</a></span>
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</td></tr>
|
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<tr>
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<th><a href="/wiki/ALA-LC_Romanization" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC Romanization">ALA-LC</a>
|
||
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</th>
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<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">Amjad kāna lahu qaṣr</i></span></td>
|
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<td><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">Ilá al-mamlakah al-Maghribīyah</i></span>
|
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</td></tr>
|
||
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<tr>
|
||
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<th><a href="/wiki/Hans_Wehr_transliteration" title="Hans Wehr transliteration">Hans Wehr</a>
|
||
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</th>
|
||
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<td><span title="Hans Wehr transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">amjad kāna lahū qaṣr</i></span></td>
|
||
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<td><span title="Hans Wehr transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">ilā l-mamlaka al-maḡribīya</i></span>
|
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</td></tr>
|
||
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<tr>
|
||
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<th><a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">DIN 31635</a>
|
||
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</th>
|
||
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<td><span title="DIN transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">ʾAmǧad kāna lahu qaṣr</i></span></td>
|
||
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<td><span title="DIN transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">ʾIlā l-mamlakah al-Maġribiyyah</i></span>
|
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</td></tr>
|
||
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<tr>
|
||
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<th><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Group_of_Experts_on_Geographical_Names" title="United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names">UNGEGN</a>
|
||
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</th>
|
||
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<td><span title="United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">Amjad kāna lahu qaşr</i></span></td>
|
||
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<td><span title="United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">Ilá al-mamlakah al-maghribiyyah</i></span>
|
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</td></tr>
|
||
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<tr>
|
||
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<th><a href="/wiki/ISO_233" title="ISO 233">ISO 233</a>
|
||
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</th>
|
||
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<td><span title="ISO transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">ʾˈamǧad kāna lahu qaṣr</i></span></td>
|
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<td><span title="ISO transliteration"><i lang="arb-Latn">ʾˈilaỳ ʾˈalmamlakaẗ ʾˈalmaġribiȳaẗ</i></span>
|
||
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</td></tr>
|
||
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<tr>
|
||
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<th><a href="/wiki/ArabTeX" title="ArabTeX">ArabTeX</a>
|
||
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</th>
|
||
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<td><span title="Standard Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="arb-Latn">am^gad kAna lahu qa.sr</i></span></td>
|
||
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<td><span title="Standard Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="arb-Latn">il_A almamlakaT alma.gribiyyaT</i></span>
|
||
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</td></tr>
|
||
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<tr>
|
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<th>English
|
||
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</th>
|
||
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<td>Amjad had a palace</td>
|
||
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<td>To the Moroccan Kingdom
|
||
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</td></tr></tbody></table>
|
||
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism">Arabic alphabet and nationalism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Arabic alphabet and nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
|
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<p>There have been many instances of national movements to convert <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic script</a> into Latin script or to romanize the language.
|
||
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</p>
|
||
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Lebanon">Lebanon</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Lebanon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
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<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebnaan_Newspaper_issue_686.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fe/Lebnaan_Newspaper_issue_686.jpg/300px-Lebnaan_Newspaper_issue_686.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fe/Lebnaan_Newspaper_issue_686.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="305" /></a><figcaption><i>LEBNAAN</i> in proposed <a href="/wiki/Said_Akl" title="Said Akl">Said Akl</a> alphabet (issue #686)</figcaption></figure>
|
||
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<p>A Beirut newspaper, <i>La Syrie</i>, pushed for the change from Arabic script to <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic#Said_Akl's_orthography" title="Lebanese Arabic">Latin script</a> in 1922. The major head of this movement was <a href="/wiki/Louis_Massignon" title="Louis Massignon">Louis Massignon</a>, a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at romanization failed as the Academy and the population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the Academy, asserted that the movement to romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup>
|
||
|
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</p>
|
||
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt">Egypt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
|
||
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<p>After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and reemphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a> in which the formal Arabic and the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">colloquial Arabic</a> would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup> There was also the idea of finding a way to use <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphics">hieroglyphics</a> instead of the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup> A scholar, <a href="/wiki/Salama_Musa" class="mw-redirect" title="Salama Musa">Salama Musa</a>, agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Egyptian Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in script, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Lutfi_el-Sayed" title="Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed">Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Azmi" title="Muhammad Mustafa Azmi">Muhammad Azmi</a>, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for romanization.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup> The idea that romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup> He believed and desired to implement romanization in a way that allowed words and spellings to remain somewhat familiar to the Egyptian people. However, this effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet, particularly the older generation.<sup id="cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-24">[24]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" title="Arabic chat alphabet">Arabic chat alphabet</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Arabic diacritics</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic names">Arabic names</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop_(letter)" title="Glottal stop (letter)">Glottal stop (letter)</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_alphabet" title="Ottoman Turkish alphabet">Ottoman Turkish alphabet</a> – a <a href="/wiki/Perso-Arabic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Arabic script">Perso-Arabic</a>-based alphabet, which was replaced by the Latin-based <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish alphabet</a> in 1928</li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Romanization of Hebrew</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian" title="Romanization of Persian">Romanization of Persian</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Arabic_Technical_Transliteration_System" title="Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System">Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System</a> (SATTS)</li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
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<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFAdegokeAbdulraheem2017" class="citation journal cs1">Adegoke, Kazeem Adekunle; Abdulraheem, Bashir (7 June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.uinjkt.ac.id/index.php/tarbiya/article/view/5549">"Re-Thinking Romanization of Arabic-Islamic Script"</a>. <i>TARBIYA: Journal of Education in Muslim Society</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 22–31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15408%2Ftjems.v4i1.5549">10.15408/tjems.v4i1.5549</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2442-9848">2442-9848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TARBIYA%3A+Journal+of+Education+in+Muslim+Society&rft.atitle=Re-Thinking+Romanization+of+Arabic-Islamic+Script&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-31&rft.date=2017-06-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15408%2Ftjems.v4i1.5549&rft.issn=2442-9848&rft.aulast=Adegoke&rft.aufirst=Kazeem+Adekunle&rft.au=Abdulraheem%2C+Bashir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.uinjkt.ac.id%2Findex.php%2Ftarbiya%2Farticle%2Fview%2F5549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/ILUR/article/view/75206/4564456557261">«La lengua de la gente común y no los priores de la gramática arábiga».La Doctrina christiana en lengua arábiga y castellana (1566) de Martín Pérez de Ayala</a>, Teresa Soto González, University of Salamanca <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lipiński-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lipiński_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lipiński_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lipiński_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lipiński_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lipiński_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lipiński_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Edward Lipiński</a>, 2012, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_2963/c/No_2_2012.21-47.pdf">Arabic Linguistics: A Historiographic Overview</a>, pages 32–33</span>
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<li id="cite_note-BGN-PCGN-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BGN-PCGN_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/320079/Arabic_Romanization.pdf">"Romanization system for Arabic. BGN/PCGN 1956 System"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Romanization+system+for+Arabic.+BGN%2FPCGN+1956+System&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F320079%2FArabic_Romanization.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-UNGEGN-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNGEGN_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/rom1_ar.pdf">"Arabic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNGEGN.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arabic&rft.pub=UNGEGN&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eki.ee%2Fwgrs%2From1_ar.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/pubs/UNGEGN%20tech%20ref%20manual_m87_combined.pdf"><i>Technical reference manual for the standardization of geographical names</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNGEGN. 2007. p. 12 [22].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technical+reference+manual+for+the+standardization+of+geographical+names&rft.pages=12+22&rft.pub=UNGEGN&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funstats.un.org%2Funsd%2Fgeoinfo%2FUNGEGN%2Fdocs%2Fpubs%2FUNGEGN%2520tech%2520ref%2520manual_m87_combined.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/25th-gegn-docs/wp%20papers/crp3.pdf">"Systèmes français de romanisation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNGEGN. 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syst%C3%A8mes+fran%C3%A7ais+de+romanisation&rft.pub=UNGEGN&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funstats.un.org%2Funsd%2Fgeoinfo%2Fungegn%2Fdocs%2F25th-gegn-docs%2Fwp%2520papers%2Fcrp3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-ALA-LC-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ALA-LC_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/arabic.pdf">"Arabic romanization table"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The Library of Congress.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arabic+romanization+table&rft.pub=The+Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcatdir%2Fcpso%2Fromanization%2Farabic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ijmes.chass.ncsu.edu/IJMES_Translation_and_Transliteration_Guide.htm">"IJMES Translation & Transliteration Guide"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IJMES+Translation+%26+Transliteration+Guide&rft.pub=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fijmes.chass.ncsu.edu%2FIJMES_Translation_and_Transliteration_Guide.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-EI-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EI_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://guides.lib.uw.edu/c.php?g=341351&p=2970796">"Encyclopaedia of Islam Romanization vs ALA Romanization for Arabic"</a>. <i>University of Washington Libraries</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Washington+Libraries&rft.atitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+Romanization+vs+ALA+Romanization+for+Arabic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fguides.lib.uw.edu%2Fc.php%3Fg%3D341351%26p%3D2970796&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-DGM1935-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DGM1935_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBrockelmannRonkel1935" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Brockelmann" title="Carl Brockelmann">Brockelmann, Carl</a>; Ronkel, Philippus Samuel van (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naher-osten.uni-muenchen.de/studium_lehre/werkzeugkasten/dmgtransliteration.pdf"><i>Die Transliteration der arabischen Schrift...</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Leipzig.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Transliteration+der+arabischen+Schrift...&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Brockelmann&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Ronkel%2C+Philippus+Samuel+van&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naher-osten.uni-muenchen.de%2Fstudium_lehre%2Fwerkzeugkasten%2Fdmgtransliteration.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-EALL-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EALL_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EALL_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFReichmuth2009" class="citation book cs1">Reichmuth, Philipp (2009). "Transcription". In Versteegh, Kees (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics</i>. Vol. 4. Brill. pp. 515–20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transcription&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.pages=515-20&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Reichmuth&rft.aufirst=Philipp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMillarSalgadoZedán2005" class="citation book cs1">Millar, M. Angélica; Salgado, Rosa; Zedán, Marcela (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FE8w5YF7650C&pg=PA53"><i>Gramatica de la lengua arabe para hispanohablantes</i></a>. Santiago de Chile: Editorial Universitaria. pp. 53–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-956-11-1799-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-956-11-1799-0"><bdi>978-956-11-1799-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gramatica+de+la+lengua+arabe+para+hispanohablantes&rft.place=Santiago+de+Chile&rft.pages=53-54&rft.pub=Editorial+Universitaria&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-956-11-1799-0&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=M.+Ang%C3%A9lica&rft.au=Salgado%2C+Rosa&rft.au=Zed%C3%A1n%2C+Marcela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFE8w5YF7650C%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081007063234/http://www.bsi-global.com/index.xalter">"Standards, Training, Testing, Assessment and Certification"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BSI_Group" title="BSI Group">BSI Group</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bsi-global.com/index.xalter">the original</a> on 7 October 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Standards%2C+Training%2C+Testing%2C+Assessment+and+Certification&rft.pub=BSI+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bsi-global.com%2Findex.xalter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://129.69.218.213/arabtex/html/arabdoc.pdf">ArabTex User Manual</a> Section 4.1 : ASCII Transliteration Encoding.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qamus.org/transliteration.htm">"Buckwalter Arabic Transliteration"</a>. QAMUS LLC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Buckwalter+Arabic+Transliteration&rft.pub=QAMUS+LLC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qamus.org%2Ftransliteration.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.xerox.com/Services/arabic-morphology/Pages/buckwalter-about">"Arabic Morphological Analyzer/The Buckwalter Transliteration"</a>. Xerox<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arabic+Morphological+Analyzer%2FThe+Buckwalter+Transliteration&rft.pub=Xerox&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopen.xerox.com%2FServices%2Farabic-morphology%2FPages%2Fbuckwalter-about&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2017" class="citation thesis cs1">Sullivan, Natalie (July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2152/72420"><i>Writing Arabizi: Orthographic Variation in Romanized Lebanese Arabic on Twitter</i></a> (Plan II Honors Thesis). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15781%2FT2W951823">10.15781/T2W951823</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2152%2F72420">2152/72420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Writing+Arabizi%3A+Orthographic+Variation+in+Romanized+Lebanese+Arabic+on+Twitter&rft.date=2017-07&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2152%2F72420&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15781%2FT2W951823&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Natalie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdl.handle.net%2F2152%2F72420&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Egyptian_Romanized_Arabic-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Egyptian_Romanized_Arabic_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBjørnsson2010" class="citation web cs1">Bjørnsson, Jan Arild (November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/24250/Bjoernsson_master.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">"Egyptian Romanized Arabic: A Study of Selected Features from Communication Among Egyptian Youth on Facebook"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. University of Oslo<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Egyptian+Romanized+Arabic%3A+A+Study+of+Selected+Features+from+Communication+Among+Egyptian+Youth+on+Facebook&rft.pub=University+of+Oslo&rft.date=2010-11&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B8rnsson&rft.aufirst=Jan+Arild&rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.duo.uio.no%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10852%2F24250%2FBjoernsson_master.pdf%3Fsequence%3D1%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Elhija2014" class="citation journal cs1">Abu Elhija, Dua'a (3 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17586801.2013.868334">"A new writing system? Developing orthographies for writing Arabic dialects in electronic media"</a>. <i>Writing Systems Research</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 190–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17586801.2013.868334">10.1080/17586801.2013.868334</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1758-6801">1758-6801</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219568845">219568845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Writing+Systems+Research&rft.atitle=A+new+writing+system%3F+Developing+orthographies+for+writing+Arabic+dialects+in+electronic+media&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=190-214&rft.date=2014-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219568845%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1758-6801&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17586801.2013.868334&rft.aulast=Abu+Elhija&rft.aufirst=Dua%27a&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F17586801.2013.868334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/uae/education/arabizi-sparks-concern-among-educators-1.1181529">"Arabizi sparks concern among educators"</a>. GulfNews.com. 9 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arabizi+sparks+concern+among+educators&rft.pub=GulfNews.com&rft.date=2013-05-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgulfnews.com%2Fnews%2Fgulf%2Fuae%2Feducation%2Farabizi-sparks-concern-among-educators-1.1181529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/arabic.pdf">"Arabic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ALA-LC Romanization Tables</i>. Library of Congress. p. 9<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2013</span>. <q>21. The prime (ʹ) is used: (a) To separate two letters representing two distinct consonantal sounds, when the combination might otherwise be read as a digraph.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ALA-LC+Romanization+Tables&rft.atitle=Arabic&rft.pages=9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcatdir%2Fcpso%2Fromanization%2Farabic.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-shrivtiel179-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shrivtiel179_23-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFShrivtiel1998" class="citation book cs1">Shrivtiel, Shraybom (1998). <i>The Question of Romanisation of the Script and The Emergence of Nationalism in the Middle East</i>. Mediterranean Language Review. pp. 179–196.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Question+of+Romanisation+of+the+Script+and+The+Emergence+of+Nationalism+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=179-196&rft.pub=Mediterranean+Language+Review&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Shrivtiel&rft.aufirst=Shraybom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARomanization+of+Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_24-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">History of Arabic Writing</span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shrivtiel, p. 188</span>
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</ol></div></div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Romanization_of_Arabic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Arabic_2.2.pdf">Comparative table of DIN 31635, ISO 233, ISO/R 233, UN, ALA-LC, and Encyclopædia of Islam</a> (PDF; not normative)</li></ul>
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<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li>
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<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Romanization</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul>
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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a>
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<ul><li>Zabūr script</li></ul></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a>
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<ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Tashkil" class="mw-redirect" title="Tashkil">Tashkil</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Harakat" class="mw-redirect" title="Harakat">Harakat</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Tanwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanwin">Tanwin</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamzah</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern Spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central-Eastern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirati Dialect">Emirati</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></span></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></span></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northwestern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nilo-Egyptian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South Mesopotamian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%87ukurova_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Çukurova Arabic">Cilician</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">North-Eastern Tunisian</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_pre-Hilalian_Village_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern pre-Hilalian Village dialects">Eastern Village</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahel</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Lesser Kabylia</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_pre-Hilalian_Village_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Western pre-Hilalian Village dialects">Western Village</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Mountain</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Judeo-Maghrebi Arabic
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></span></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulaym_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulaym Arabic dialects">Sulaym</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Hilalian Arabic dialects">Eastern Hilal</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Hilalian Arabic dialects">Central Hilal</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Maqil_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqil Arabic dialects">Maqil</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western Moroccan</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern Moroccan</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi dialect</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algeria_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Algeria Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassānīya</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi dialect</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Darija" class="mw-redirect" title="Moroccan Darija">Moroccan koiné</a></li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Peripheries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li>Bakhtiari</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Bukhara</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Kashkadarya</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li>Kjal</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Wqal</li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li>Adeni</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Beda</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Habban</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic#Turku" title="Chadian Arabic">Turku</a></i></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Help:IPA for Arabic">IPA</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawi alphabet">Jawi script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BFl%C4%ABq_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Taʿlīq script">Taʿlīq script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Nasta%CA%BFl%C4%ABq_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Nastaʿlīq script">Nastaʿlīq script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shahmukhi alphabet">Shahmukhī script</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li>MS-DOS codepages
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li>709</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>710</li>
|
||
|
|
<li>711</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li>
|
||
|
|
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_language" title="Category:Arabic language">Category</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
|
||
|
|
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Romanization" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Romanization" title="Template:Romanization"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Romanization" title="Template talk:Romanization"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Romanization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Romanization"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Romanization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Romanization</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By publisher (for several languages)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ALA-LC_romanization" title="ALA-LC romanization">ALA-LC</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/BGN/PCGN_romanization" title="BGN/PCGN romanization">BGN/PCGN</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/GOST_16876-71" title="GOST 16876-71">GOST</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ISO_romanizations" title="List of ISO romanizations">ISO</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization" title="Yale romanization">Yale</a></li></ul>
|
||
|
|
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By language or writing system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Amharic</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Armenian" title="Romanization of Armenian">Armenian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanisation_of_Bengali" title="Romanisation of Bengali">Bengali</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Latin_alphabet" title="Berber Latin alphabet">Berber</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Burmese" title="Romanization of Burmese">Burmese</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">Chinese</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language_romanization_in_Taiwan" title="Chinese language romanization in Taiwan">in Taiwan</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language_romanisation_in_Singapore" title="Chinese language romanisation in Singapore">in Singapore</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Cyrillic" title="Romanization of Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a>
|
||
|
|
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_romanizations_of_Cyrillic" title="Informal romanizations of Cyrillic">informal</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Belarusian" title="Romanization of Belarusian">Belarusian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Bulgarian" title="Romanization of Bulgarian">Bulgarian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_alphabets" title="Kazakh alphabets">Kazakh</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Kyrgyz" title="Romanization of Kyrgyz">Kyrgyz</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Macedonian" title="Romanization of Macedonian">Macedonian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">Russian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Serbian" title="Romanization of Serbian">Serbian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Ukrainian" title="Romanization of Ukrainian">Ukrainian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_alphabet" title="Uzbek alphabet">Uzbek</a></li></ul></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Georgian" title="Romanization of Georgian">Georgian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek" title="Romanization of Greek">Greek</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">Hebrew</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hindi" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Hindi">Hindi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_syllabics" title="Inuktitut syllabics">Inuktitut</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Japanese</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Khmer" title="Romanization of Khmer">Khmer</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Korean" title="Romanization of Korean">Korean</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Lao" title="Romanization of Lao">Lao</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Malayalam" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Malayalam">Malayalam</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Maldivian" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Maldivian">Maldivian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_transliteration" title="Devanagari transliteration">Marathi</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_transliteration" title="Devanagari transliteration">Nepali</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian" title="Romanization of Persian">Persian</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Sanskrit" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Latin_alphabet_and_romanization" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a></li>
|
||
|
|
<li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a></li>
|
||
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<li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Telugu" title="Romanization of Telugu">Telugu</a></li>
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