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<div class="border-bottom pb-3 mb-3">
<span class="d-block h4 color-fg-default my-1" id="solutions-for-heading">For</span>
<ul class="list-style-none f5" aria-labelledby="solutions-for-heading">
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Enterprise&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Enterprise;&quot;}" href="/enterprise">
Enterprise
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Teams&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Teams;&quot;}" href="/team">
Teams
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Startups&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Startups;&quot;}" href="/enterprise/startups">
Startups
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" target="_blank" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Education&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Education;&quot;}" href="https://education.github.com">
Education
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-link-external HeaderMenu-external-icon color-fg-subtle">
<path d="M3.75 2h3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-3.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v8.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v3.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 14h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 12.25v-8.5C2 2.784 2.784 2 3.75 2Zm6.854-1h4.146a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v4.146a.25.25 0 0 1-.427.177L13.03 4.03 9.28 7.78a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042l3.75-3.75-1.543-1.543A.25.25 0 0 1 10.604 1Z"></path>
</svg>
</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="border-bottom pb-3 mb-3">
<span class="d-block h4 color-fg-default my-1" id="solutions-by-solution-heading">By Solution</span>
<ul class="list-style-none f5" aria-labelledby="solutions-by-solution-heading">
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to CI/CD &amp;amp; Automation&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:CI/CD &amp;amp; Automation;&quot;}" href="/solutions/ci-cd/">
CI/CD &amp; Automation
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to DevOps&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:DevOps;&quot;}" href="/solutions/devops/">
DevOps
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" target="_blank" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to DevSecOps&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:DevSecOps;&quot;}" href="https://resources.github.com/devops/fundamentals/devsecops/">
DevSecOps
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-link-external HeaderMenu-external-icon color-fg-subtle">
<path d="M3.75 2h3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-3.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v8.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v3.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 14h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 12.25v-8.5C2 2.784 2.784 2 3.75 2Zm6.854-1h4.146a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v4.146a.25.25 0 0 1-.427.177L13.03 4.03 9.28 7.78a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042l3.75-3.75-1.543-1.543A.25.25 0 0 1 10.604 1Z"></path>
</svg>
</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="">
<span class="d-block h4 color-fg-default my-1" id="solutions-resources-heading">Resources</span>
<ul class="list-style-none f5" aria-labelledby="solutions-resources-heading">
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" target="_blank" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Learning Pathways&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Learning Pathways;&quot;}" href="https://resources.github.com/learn/pathways/">
Learning Pathways
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-link-external HeaderMenu-external-icon color-fg-subtle">
<path d="M3.75 2h3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-3.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v8.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v3.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 14h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 12.25v-8.5C2 2.784 2.784 2 3.75 2Zm6.854-1h4.146a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v4.146a.25.25 0 0 1-.427.177L13.03 4.03 9.28 7.78a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042l3.75-3.75-1.543-1.543A.25.25 0 0 1 10.604 1Z"></path>
</svg>
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" target="_blank" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to White papers, Ebooks, Webinars&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:White papers, Ebooks, Webinars;&quot;}" href="https://resources.github.com/">
White papers, Ebooks, Webinars
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-link-external HeaderMenu-external-icon color-fg-subtle">
<path d="M3.75 2h3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-3.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v8.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v3.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 14h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 12.25v-8.5C2 2.784 2.784 2 3.75 2Zm6.854-1h4.146a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v4.146a.25.25 0 0 1-.427.177L13.03 4.03 9.28 7.78a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042l3.75-3.75-1.543-1.543A.25.25 0 0 1 10.604 1Z"></path>
</svg>
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Customer Stories&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Customer Stories;&quot;}" href="/customer-stories">
Customer Stories
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" target="_blank" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Solutions&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Partners&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Partners;&quot;}" href="https://partner.github.com/">
Partners
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-link-external HeaderMenu-external-icon color-fg-subtle">
<path d="M3.75 2h3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-3.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v8.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-3.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v3.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 14h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 12.25v-8.5C2 2.784 2.784 2 3.75 2Zm6.854-1h4.146a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v4.146a.25.25 0 0 1-.427.177L13.03 4.03 9.28 7.78a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042l3.75-3.75-1.543-1.543A.25.25 0 0 1 10.604 1Z"></path>
</svg>
</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="HeaderMenu-item position-relative flex-wrap flex-justify-between flex-items-center d-block d-lg-flex flex-lg-nowrap flex-lg-items-center js-details-container js-header-menu-item">
<button type="button" class="HeaderMenu-link border-0 width-full width-lg-auto px-0 px-lg-2 py-3 py-lg-2 no-wrap d-flex flex-items-center flex-justify-between js-details-target" aria-expanded="false">
Open Source
<svg opacity="0.5" aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-chevron-down HeaderMenu-icon ml-1">
<path d="M12.78 5.22a.749.749 0 0 1 0 1.06l-4.25 4.25a.749.749 0 0 1-1.06 0L3.22 6.28a.749.749 0 1 1 1.06-1.06L8 8.939l3.72-3.719a.749.749 0 0 1 1.06 0Z"></path>
</svg>
</button>
<div class="HeaderMenu-dropdown dropdown-menu rounded m-0 p-0 py-2 py-lg-4 position-relative position-lg-absolute left-0 left-lg-n3 px-lg-4">
<div class="border-bottom pb-3 mb-3">
<ul class="list-style-none f5" >
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary d-flex flex-items-center" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Open Source&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to GitHub Sponsors&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:GitHub Sponsors;&quot;}" href="/sponsors">
<div>
<div class="color-fg-default h4">GitHub Sponsors</div>
Fund open source developers
</div>
</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="border-bottom pb-3 mb-3">
<ul class="list-style-none f5" >
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary d-flex flex-items-center" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Open Source&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to The ReadME Project&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:The ReadME Project;&quot;}" href="/readme">
<div>
<div class="color-fg-default h4">The ReadME Project</div>
GitHub community articles
</div>
</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="">
<span class="d-block h4 color-fg-default my-1" id="open-source-repositories-heading">Repositories</span>
<ul class="list-style-none f5" aria-labelledby="open-source-repositories-heading">
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Open Source&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Topics&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Topics;&quot;}" href="/topics">
Topics
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Open Source&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Trending&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Trending;&quot;}" href="/trending">
Trending
</a></li>
<li>
<a class="HeaderMenu-dropdown-link lh-condensed d-block no-underline position-relative py-2 Link--secondary" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header dropdown (logged out), Open Source&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Collections&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Collections;&quot;}" href="/collections">
Collections
</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</li>
<li class="HeaderMenu-item position-relative flex-wrap flex-justify-between flex-items-center d-block d-lg-flex flex-lg-nowrap flex-lg-items-center js-details-container js-header-menu-item">
<a class="HeaderMenu-link no-underline px-0 px-lg-2 py-3 py-lg-2 d-block d-lg-inline-block" data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Header menu top item (logged out)&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to go to Pricing&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_cta:Pricing;&quot;}" href="/pricing">Pricing</a>
</li>
</ul>
</nav>
<div class="d-lg-flex flex-items-center mb-3 mb-lg-0 text-center text-lg-left ml-3" style="">
<qbsearch-input class="search-input" data-scope="repo:HubTou/PNU" data-custom-scopes-path="/search/custom_scopes" data-delete-custom-scopes-csrf="rPyVJaez2Hd46YWgIi_Owx9De5QWk-gQqe3nC_-iNXVfprNNAIJnomEW_MD4tgBIOGdxuJab9VzrBvHKXa0PrA" data-max-custom-scopes="10" data-header-redesign-enabled="false" data-initial-value="" data-blackbird-suggestions-path="/search/suggestions" data-jump-to-suggestions-path="/_graphql/GetSuggestedNavigationDestinations" data-current-repository="HubTou/PNU" data-current-org="" data-current-owner="HubTou" data-logged-in="false" data-copilot-chat-enabled="false" data-blackbird-indexed-repo-csrf="<esi:include src=&quot;/_esi/rails_csrf_token_form_hidden?r=NvI6D0k%2Fnt9ZeneUCAapGw2hvgD5K6o%2Fur77yM%2BVIPwF7S0kKQ2Fsq%2FxD3Q8gHDfTwFH1IA4iNjfUqFdCuYEp72wQyDfW7P4JvwPVtNtBz21%2BYsOzRPEc9u4pZAU5jkmsDIQzJG%2BkFdJq5cDddXCqCqXiCvp661nxbUl0u%2BL%2BMbToODdb0Nf%2B%2BqynuZ%2BCgV%2FYeWUNPLcTWMfX%2FhOH%2F5scMzY7hT0X9WumfK%2FUtEWmIn1zmulP0yhxlbf%2BXHx06795X38iSEY4RMEKass4PByNJw%2FInHp6VPzupDHaAkoDpw4DSw%2F1U8U2Xmwim6NFKTtQQmDxkVMYCccMa%2B%2FTtcPbxQQ5A4BidjAW8s9fFD%2BXHcqyDxMJZ5Nf75%2BhH7ddvWsNPlaUfLd9lBxq%2Ftqvy2rx2Zsx9%2FRrfgxG2ybxjJ%2FoZrdOXfsTydEusvaCeYRrzb8sgjl0GuBfRpJa%2Fjv6LzK7C%2FQahGwtJdTpHSEVIuWJ7jMmH5Ldfdh%2B9CZUGuITEL95%2FL0K1WFV4rfBvjcSioyxf8TBt8QF%2B1yjPMPt65TgKeFS0ol%2B7acICejzKM5is9VF7w%3D--hIl1NWHVauSVVC7A--8IK2aWiT8CHyPMe%2BJen02g%3D%3D&quot; />">
<div
class="search-input-container search-with-dialog position-relative d-flex flex-row flex-items-center mr-4 rounded"
data-action="click:qbsearch-input#searchInputContainerClicked"
>
<button
type="button"
class="header-search-button placeholder input-button form-control d-flex flex-1 flex-self-stretch flex-items-center no-wrap width-full py-0 pl-2 pr-0 text-left border-0 box-shadow-none"
data-target="qbsearch-input.inputButton"
placeholder="Search or jump to..."
data-hotkey=s,/
autocapitalize="off"
data-action="click:qbsearch-input#handleExpand"
>
<div class="mr-2 color-fg-muted">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-search">
<path d="M10.68 11.74a6 6 0 0 1-7.922-8.982 6 6 0 0 1 8.982 7.922l3.04 3.04a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215ZM11.5 7a4.499 4.499 0 1 0-8.997 0A4.499 4.499 0 0 0 11.5 7Z"></path>
</svg>
</div>
<span class="flex-1" data-target="qbsearch-input.inputButtonText">Search or jump to...</span>
<div class="d-flex" data-target="qbsearch-input.hotkeyIndicator">
<svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="22" height="20" aria-hidden="true" class="mr-1"><path fill="none" stroke="#979A9C" opacity=".4" d="M3.5.5h12c1.7 0 3 1.3 3 3v13c0 1.7-1.3 3-3 3h-12c-1.7 0-3-1.3-3-3v-13c0-1.7 1.3-3 3-3z"></path><path fill="#979A9C" d="M11.8 6L8 15.1h-.9L10.8 6h1z"></path></svg>
</div>
</button>
<input type="hidden" name="type" class="js-site-search-type-field">
<div class="Overlay--hidden " data-modal-dialog-overlay>
<modal-dialog data-action="close:qbsearch-input#handleClose cancel:qbsearch-input#handleClose" data-target="qbsearch-input.searchSuggestionsDialog" role="dialog" id="search-suggestions-dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-labelledby="search-suggestions-dialog-header" data-view-component="true" class="Overlay Overlay--width-large Overlay--height-auto">
<h1 id="search-suggestions-dialog-header" class="sr-only">Search code, repositories, users, issues, pull requests...</h1>
<div class="Overlay-body Overlay-body--paddingNone">
<div data-view-component="true"> <div class="search-suggestions position-fixed width-full color-shadow-large border color-fg-default color-bg-default overflow-hidden d-flex flex-column query-builder-container"
style="border-radius: 12px;"
data-target="qbsearch-input.queryBuilderContainer"
hidden
>
<!-- '"` --><!-- </textarea></xmp> --></option></form><form id="query-builder-test-form" action="" accept-charset="UTF-8" method="get">
<query-builder data-target="qbsearch-input.queryBuilder" id="query-builder-query-builder-test" data-filter-key=":" data-view-component="true" class="QueryBuilder search-query-builder">
<div class="FormControl FormControl--fullWidth">
<label id="query-builder-test-label" for="query-builder-test" class="FormControl-label sr-only">
Search
</label>
<div
class="QueryBuilder-StyledInput width-fit "
data-target="query-builder.styledInput"
>
<span id="query-builder-test-leadingvisual-wrap" class="FormControl-input-leadingVisualWrap QueryBuilder-leadingVisualWrap">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-search FormControl-input-leadingVisual">
<path d="M10.68 11.74a6 6 0 0 1-7.922-8.982 6 6 0 0 1 8.982 7.922l3.04 3.04a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215ZM11.5 7a4.499 4.499 0 1 0-8.997 0A4.499 4.499 0 0 0 11.5 7Z"></path>
</svg>
</span>
<div data-target="query-builder.styledInputContainer" class="QueryBuilder-StyledInputContainer">
<div
aria-hidden="true"
class="QueryBuilder-StyledInputContent"
data-target="query-builder.styledInputContent"
></div>
<div class="QueryBuilder-InputWrapper">
<div aria-hidden="true" class="QueryBuilder-Sizer" data-target="query-builder.sizer"></div>
<input id="query-builder-test" name="query-builder-test" value="" autocomplete="off" type="text" role="combobox" spellcheck="false" aria-expanded="false" aria-describedby="validation-ac8572cf-8aff-433a-8447-71d0ae47404f" data-target="query-builder.input" data-action="
input:query-builder#inputChange
blur:query-builder#inputBlur
keydown:query-builder#inputKeydown
focus:query-builder#inputFocus
" data-view-component="true" class="FormControl-input QueryBuilder-Input FormControl-medium" />
</div>
</div>
<span class="sr-only" id="query-builder-test-clear">Clear</span>
<button role="button" id="query-builder-test-clear-button" aria-labelledby="query-builder-test-clear query-builder-test-label" data-target="query-builder.clearButton" data-action="
click:query-builder#clear
focus:query-builder#clearButtonFocus
blur:query-builder#clearButtonBlur
" variant="small" hidden="hidden" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="Button Button--iconOnly Button--invisible Button--medium mr-1 px-2 py-0 d-flex flex-items-center rounded-1 color-fg-muted"> <svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-x-circle-fill Button-visual">
<path d="M2.343 13.657A8 8 0 1 1 13.658 2.343 8 8 0 0 1 2.343 13.657ZM6.03 4.97a.751.751 0 0 0-1.042.018.751.751 0 0 0-.018 1.042L6.94 8 4.97 9.97a.749.749 0 0 0 .326 1.275.749.749 0 0 0 .734-.215L8 9.06l1.97 1.97a.749.749 0 0 0 1.275-.326.749.749 0 0 0-.215-.734L9.06 8l1.97-1.97a.749.749 0 0 0-.326-1.275.749.749 0 0 0-.734.215L8 6.94Z"></path>
</svg>
</button>
</div>
<template id="search-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-search">
<path d="M10.68 11.74a6 6 0 0 1-7.922-8.982 6 6 0 0 1 8.982 7.922l3.04 3.04a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215ZM11.5 7a4.499 4.499 0 1 0-8.997 0A4.499 4.499 0 0 0 11.5 7Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="code-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-code">
<path d="m11.28 3.22 4.25 4.25a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.06l-4.25 4.25a.749.749 0 0 1-1.275-.326.749.749 0 0 1 .215-.734L13.94 8l-3.72-3.72a.749.749 0 0 1 .326-1.275.749.749 0 0 1 .734.215Zm-6.56 0a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042L2.06 8l3.72 3.72a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215L.47 8.53a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.06Z"></path>
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<template id="history-icon">
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<template id="repo-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-repo">
<path d="M2 2.5A2.5 2.5 0 0 1 4.5 0h8.75a.75.75 0 0 1 .75.75v12.5a.75.75 0 0 1-.75.75h-2.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.5h1.75v-2h-8a1 1 0 0 0-.714 1.7.75.75 0 1 1-1.072 1.05A2.495 2.495 0 0 1 2 11.5Zm10.5-1h-8a1 1 0 0 0-1 1v6.708A2.486 2.486 0 0 1 4.5 9h8ZM5 12.25a.25.25 0 0 1 .25-.25h3.5a.25.25 0 0 1 .25.25v3.25a.25.25 0 0 1-.4.2l-1.45-1.087a.249.249 0 0 0-.3 0L5.4 15.7a.25.25 0 0 1-.4-.2Z"></path>
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<template id="bookmark-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-bookmark">
<path d="M3 2.75C3 1.784 3.784 1 4.75 1h6.5c.966 0 1.75.784 1.75 1.75v11.5a.75.75 0 0 1-1.227.579L8 11.722l-3.773 3.107A.751.751 0 0 1 3 14.25Zm1.75-.25a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v9.91l3.023-2.489a.75.75 0 0 1 .954 0l3.023 2.49V2.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25Z"></path>
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<template id="plus-circle-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-plus-circle">
<path d="M8 0a8 8 0 1 1 0 16A8 8 0 0 1 8 0ZM1.5 8a6.5 6.5 0 1 0 13 0 6.5 6.5 0 0 0-13 0Zm7.25-3.25v2.5h2.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-2.5v2.5a.75.75 0 0 1-1.5 0v-2.5h-2.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.5h2.5v-2.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0Z"></path>
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<template id="circle-icon">
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<template id="trash-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-trash">
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<template id="team-icon">
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<template id="project-icon">
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<template id="pencil-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-pencil">
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<template id="copilot-icon">
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<template id="workflow-icon">
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<template id="book-icon">
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<path d="M0 1.75A.75.75 0 0 1 .75 1h4.253c1.227 0 2.317.59 3 1.501A3.743 3.743 0 0 1 11.006 1h4.245a.75.75 0 0 1 .75.75v10.5a.75.75 0 0 1-.75.75h-4.507a2.25 2.25 0 0 0-1.591.659l-.622.621a.75.75 0 0 1-1.06 0l-.622-.621A2.25 2.25 0 0 0 5.258 13H.75a.75.75 0 0 1-.75-.75Zm7.251 10.324.004-5.073-.002-2.253A2.25 2.25 0 0 0 5.003 2.5H1.5v9h3.757a3.75 3.75 0 0 1 1.994.574ZM8.755 4.75l-.004 7.322a3.752 3.752 0 0 1 1.992-.572H14.5v-9h-3.495a2.25 2.25 0 0 0-2.25 2.25Z"></path>
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<template id="code-review-icon">
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<template id="codespaces-icon">
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<template id="comment-icon">
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<template id="heart-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-heart">
<path d="m8 14.25.345.666a.75.75 0 0 1-.69 0l-.008-.004-.018-.01a7.152 7.152 0 0 1-.31-.17 22.055 22.055 0 0 1-3.434-2.414C2.045 10.731 0 8.35 0 5.5 0 2.836 2.086 1 4.25 1 5.797 1 7.153 1.802 8 3.02 8.847 1.802 10.203 1 11.75 1 13.914 1 16 2.836 16 5.5c0 2.85-2.045 5.231-3.885 6.818a22.066 22.066 0 0 1-3.744 2.584l-.018.01-.006.003h-.002ZM4.25 2.5c-1.336 0-2.75 1.164-2.75 3 0 2.15 1.58 4.144 3.365 5.682A20.58 20.58 0 0 0 8 13.393a20.58 20.58 0 0 0 3.135-2.211C12.92 9.644 14.5 7.65 14.5 5.5c0-1.836-1.414-3-2.75-3-1.373 0-2.609.986-3.029 2.456a.749.749 0 0 1-1.442 0C6.859 3.486 5.623 2.5 4.25 2.5Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="server-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-server">
<path d="M1.75 1h12.5c.966 0 1.75.784 1.75 1.75v4c0 .372-.116.717-.314 1 .198.283.314.628.314 1v4a1.75 1.75 0 0 1-1.75 1.75H1.75A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 0 12.75v-4c0-.358.109-.707.314-1a1.739 1.739 0 0 1-.314-1v-4C0 1.784.784 1 1.75 1ZM1.5 2.75v4c0 .138.112.25.25.25h12.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-4a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25H1.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25Zm.25 5.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v4c0 .138.112.25.25.25h12.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-4a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25ZM7 4.75A.75.75 0 0 1 7.75 4h4.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-4.5A.75.75 0 0 1 7 4.75ZM7.75 10h4.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-4.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.5ZM3 4.75A.75.75 0 0 1 3.75 4h.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-.5A.75.75 0 0 1 3 4.75ZM3.75 10h.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.5Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="globe-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-globe">
<path d="M8 0a8 8 0 1 1 0 16A8 8 0 0 1 8 0ZM5.78 8.75a9.64 9.64 0 0 0 1.363 4.177c.255.426.542.832.857 1.215.245-.296.551-.705.857-1.215A9.64 9.64 0 0 0 10.22 8.75Zm4.44-1.5a9.64 9.64 0 0 0-1.363-4.177c-.307-.51-.612-.919-.857-1.215a9.927 9.927 0 0 0-.857 1.215A9.64 9.64 0 0 0 5.78 7.25Zm-5.944 1.5H1.543a6.507 6.507 0 0 0 4.666 5.5c-.123-.181-.24-.365-.352-.552-.715-1.192-1.437-2.874-1.581-4.948Zm-2.733-1.5h2.733c.144-2.074.866-3.756 1.58-4.948.12-.197.237-.381.353-.552a6.507 6.507 0 0 0-4.666 5.5Zm10.181 1.5c-.144 2.074-.866 3.756-1.58 4.948-.12.197-.237.381-.353.552a6.507 6.507 0 0 0 4.666-5.5Zm2.733-1.5a6.507 6.507 0 0 0-4.666-5.5c.123.181.24.365.353.552.714 1.192 1.436 2.874 1.58 4.948Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="issue-opened-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-issue-opened">
<path d="M8 9.5a1.5 1.5 0 1 0 0-3 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 3Z"></path><path d="M8 0a8 8 0 1 1 0 16A8 8 0 0 1 8 0ZM1.5 8a6.5 6.5 0 1 0 13 0 6.5 6.5 0 0 0-13 0Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="device-mobile-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-device-mobile">
<path d="M3.75 0h8.5C13.216 0 14 .784 14 1.75v12.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 12.25 16h-8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 2 14.25V1.75C2 .784 2.784 0 3.75 0ZM3.5 1.75v12.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h8.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25V1.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25h-8.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25ZM8 13a1 1 0 1 1 0-2 1 1 0 0 1 0 2Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="package-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-package">
<path d="m8.878.392 5.25 3.045c.54.314.872.89.872 1.514v6.098a1.75 1.75 0 0 1-.872 1.514l-5.25 3.045a1.75 1.75 0 0 1-1.756 0l-5.25-3.045A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 1 11.049V4.951c0-.624.332-1.201.872-1.514L7.122.392a1.75 1.75 0 0 1 1.756 0ZM7.875 1.69l-4.63 2.685L8 7.133l4.755-2.758-4.63-2.685a.248.248 0 0 0-.25 0ZM2.5 5.677v5.372c0 .09.047.171.125.216l4.625 2.683V8.432Zm6.25 8.271 4.625-2.683a.25.25 0 0 0 .125-.216V5.677L8.75 8.432Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="credit-card-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-credit-card">
<path d="M10.75 9a.75.75 0 0 0 0 1.5h1.5a.75.75 0 0 0 0-1.5h-1.5Z"></path><path d="M0 3.75C0 2.784.784 2 1.75 2h12.5c.966 0 1.75.784 1.75 1.75v8.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 14.25 14H1.75A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 0 12.25ZM14.5 6.5h-13v5.75c0 .138.112.25.25.25h12.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25Zm0-2.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25H1.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25V5h13Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="play-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-play">
<path d="M8 0a8 8 0 1 1 0 16A8 8 0 0 1 8 0ZM1.5 8a6.5 6.5 0 1 0 13 0 6.5 6.5 0 0 0-13 0Zm4.879-2.773 4.264 2.559a.25.25 0 0 1 0 .428l-4.264 2.559A.25.25 0 0 1 6 10.559V5.442a.25.25 0 0 1 .379-.215Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="gift-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-gift">
<path d="M2 2.75A2.75 2.75 0 0 1 4.75 0c.983 0 1.873.42 2.57 1.232.268.318.497.668.68 1.042.183-.375.411-.725.68-1.044C9.376.42 10.266 0 11.25 0a2.75 2.75 0 0 1 2.45 4h.55c.966 0 1.75.784 1.75 1.75v2c0 .698-.409 1.301-1 1.582v4.918A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 13.25 16H2.75A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 1 14.25V9.332C.409 9.05 0 8.448 0 7.75v-2C0 4.784.784 4 1.75 4h.55c-.192-.375-.3-.8-.3-1.25ZM7.25 9.5H2.5v4.75c0 .138.112.25.25.25h4.5Zm1.5 0v5h4.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25V9.5Zm0-4V8h5.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-2a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25Zm-7 0a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v2c0 .138.112.25.25.25h5.5V5.5h-5.5Zm3-4a1.25 1.25 0 0 0 0 2.5h2.309c-.233-.818-.542-1.401-.878-1.793-.43-.502-.915-.707-1.431-.707ZM8.941 4h2.309a1.25 1.25 0 0 0 0-2.5c-.516 0-1 .205-1.43.707-.337.392-.646.975-.879 1.793Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="code-square-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-code-square">
<path d="M0 1.75C0 .784.784 0 1.75 0h12.5C15.216 0 16 .784 16 1.75v12.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 14.25 16H1.75A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 0 14.25Zm1.75-.25a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v12.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h12.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25V1.75a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25Zm7.47 3.97a.75.75 0 0 1 1.06 0l2 2a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.06l-2 2a.749.749 0 0 1-1.275-.326.749.749 0 0 1 .215-.734L10.69 8 9.22 6.53a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.06ZM6.78 6.53 5.31 8l1.47 1.47a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215l-2-2a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.06l2-2a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<template id="device-desktop-icon">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-device-desktop">
<path d="M14.25 1c.966 0 1.75.784 1.75 1.75v7.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 14.25 12h-3.727c.099 1.041.52 1.872 1.292 2.757A.752.752 0 0 1 11.25 16h-6.5a.75.75 0 0 1-.565-1.243c.772-.885 1.192-1.716 1.292-2.757H1.75A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 0 10.25v-7.5C0 1.784.784 1 1.75 1ZM1.75 2.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v7.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h12.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-7.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25ZM9.018 12H6.982a5.72 5.72 0 0 1-.765 2.5h3.566a5.72 5.72 0 0 1-.765-2.5Z"></path>
</svg>
</template>
<div class="position-relative">
<ul
role="listbox"
class="ActionListWrap QueryBuilder-ListWrap"
aria-label="Suggestions"
data-action="
combobox-commit:query-builder#comboboxCommit
mousedown:query-builder#resultsMousedown
"
data-target="query-builder.resultsList"
data-persist-list=false
id="query-builder-test-results"
></ul>
</div>
<div class="FormControl-inlineValidation" id="validation-ac8572cf-8aff-433a-8447-71d0ae47404f" hidden="hidden">
<span class="FormControl-inlineValidation--visual">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="12" viewBox="0 0 12 12" version="1.1" width="12" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-alert-fill">
<path d="M4.855.708c.5-.896 1.79-.896 2.29 0l4.675 8.351a1.312 1.312 0 0 1-1.146 1.954H1.33A1.313 1.313 0 0 1 .183 9.058ZM7 7V3H5v4Zm-1 3a1 1 0 1 0 0-2 1 1 0 0 0 0 2Z"></path>
</svg>
</span>
<span></span>
</div> </div>
<div data-target="query-builder.screenReaderFeedback" aria-live="polite" aria-atomic="true" class="sr-only"></div>
</query-builder></form>
<div class="d-flex flex-row color-fg-muted px-3 text-small color-bg-default search-feedback-prompt">
<a target="_blank" href="https://docs.github.com/search-github/github-code-search/understanding-github-code-search-syntax" data-view-component="true" class="Link color-fg-accent text-normal ml-2">
Search syntax tips
</a> <div class="d-flex flex-1"></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</modal-dialog></div>
</div>
<div data-action="click:qbsearch-input#retract" class="dark-backdrop position-fixed" hidden data-target="qbsearch-input.darkBackdrop"></div>
<div class="color-fg-default">
<dialog-helper>
<dialog data-target="qbsearch-input.feedbackDialog" data-action="close:qbsearch-input#handleDialogClose cancel:qbsearch-input#handleDialogClose" id="feedback-dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-labelledby="feedback-dialog-title" aria-describedby="feedback-dialog-description" data-view-component="true" class="Overlay Overlay-whenNarrow Overlay--size-medium Overlay--motion-scaleFade">
<div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-header">
<div class="Overlay-headerContentWrap">
<div class="Overlay-titleWrap">
<h1 class="Overlay-title " id="feedback-dialog-title">
Provide feedback
</h1>
</div>
<div class="Overlay-actionWrap">
<button data-close-dialog-id="feedback-dialog" aria-label="Close" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="close-button Overlay-closeButton"><svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-x">
<path d="M3.72 3.72a.75.75 0 0 1 1.06 0L8 6.94l3.22-3.22a.749.749 0 0 1 1.275.326.749.749 0 0 1-.215.734L9.06 8l3.22 3.22a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215L8 9.06l-3.22 3.22a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042L6.94 8 3.72 4.78a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.06Z"></path>
</svg></button>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<scrollable-region data-labelled-by="feedback-dialog-title">
<div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-body"> <!-- '"` --><!-- </textarea></xmp> --></option></form><form id="code-search-feedback-form" data-turbo="false" action="/search/feedback" accept-charset="UTF-8" method="post"><input type="hidden" data-csrf="true" name="authenticity_token" value="8cQsO0YGn7rpNOIRg3G6TLPSzxMSdAfZ5bV4xm9OD1knb4Y7UwyiVa0X2OHayJ7+daxqVARk20bqwbA5I10tfA==" />
<p>We read every piece of feedback, and take your input very seriously.</p>
<textarea name="feedback" class="form-control width-full mb-2" style="height: 120px" id="feedback"></textarea>
<input name="include_email" id="include_email" aria-label="Include my email address so I can be contacted" class="form-control mr-2" type="checkbox">
<label for="include_email" style="font-weight: normal">Include my email address so I can be contacted</label>
</form></div>
</scrollable-region>
<div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-footer Overlay-footer--alignEnd"> <button data-close-dialog-id="feedback-dialog" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="btn"> Cancel
</button>
<button form="code-search-feedback-form" data-action="click:qbsearch-input#submitFeedback" type="submit" data-view-component="true" class="btn-primary btn"> Submit feedback
</button>
</div>
</dialog></dialog-helper>
<custom-scopes data-target="qbsearch-input.customScopesManager">
<dialog-helper>
<dialog data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesModalDialog" data-action="close:qbsearch-input#handleDialogClose cancel:qbsearch-input#handleDialogClose" id="custom-scopes-dialog" aria-modal="true" aria-labelledby="custom-scopes-dialog-title" aria-describedby="custom-scopes-dialog-description" data-view-component="true" class="Overlay Overlay-whenNarrow Overlay--size-medium Overlay--motion-scaleFade">
<div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-header Overlay-header--divided">
<div class="Overlay-headerContentWrap">
<div class="Overlay-titleWrap">
<h1 class="Overlay-title " id="custom-scopes-dialog-title">
Saved searches
</h1>
<h2 id="custom-scopes-dialog-description" class="Overlay-description">Use saved searches to filter your results more quickly</h2>
</div>
<div class="Overlay-actionWrap">
<button data-close-dialog-id="custom-scopes-dialog" aria-label="Close" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="close-button Overlay-closeButton"><svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-x">
<path d="M3.72 3.72a.75.75 0 0 1 1.06 0L8 6.94l3.22-3.22a.749.749 0 0 1 1.275.326.749.749 0 0 1-.215.734L9.06 8l3.22 3.22a.749.749 0 0 1-.326 1.275.749.749 0 0 1-.734-.215L8 9.06l-3.22 3.22a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042L6.94 8 3.72 4.78a.75.75 0 0 1 0-1.06Z"></path>
</svg></button>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<scrollable-region data-labelled-by="custom-scopes-dialog-title">
<div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-body"> <div data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesModalDialogFlash"></div>
<div hidden class="create-custom-scope-form" data-target="custom-scopes.createCustomScopeForm">
<!-- '"` --><!-- </textarea></xmp> --></option></form><form id="custom-scopes-dialog-form" data-turbo="false" action="/search/custom_scopes" accept-charset="UTF-8" method="post"><input type="hidden" data-csrf="true" name="authenticity_token" value="S06oTzIyw9QchjIF2g8VagzZX26zkELVRLQVVlVEw4NXd/XjzrBiFkv8aQgqY0yqrHmv2eTf0c+IMbtC/m4GQg==" />
<div data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesModalDialogFlash"></div>
<input type="hidden" id="custom_scope_id" name="custom_scope_id" data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesIdField">
<div class="form-group">
<label for="custom_scope_name">Name</label>
<auto-check src="/search/custom_scopes/check_name" required>
<input
type="text"
name="custom_scope_name"
id="custom_scope_name"
data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesNameField"
class="form-control"
autocomplete="off"
placeholder="github-ruby"
required
maxlength="50">
<input type="hidden" data-csrf="true" value="QzbHUL0REClMqwGhnldMZIstDSkZF6kef1r3vmJ4iX+ExVGAOp/brA/ImcmAfpxuAhy/b/9DSxgH4bdyvjPWtA==" />
</auto-check>
</div>
<div class="form-group">
<label for="custom_scope_query">Query</label>
<input
type="text"
name="custom_scope_query"
id="custom_scope_query"
data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesQueryField"
class="form-control"
autocomplete="off"
placeholder="(repo:mona/a OR repo:mona/b) AND lang:python"
required
maxlength="500">
</div>
<p class="text-small color-fg-muted">
To see all available qualifiers, see our <a class="Link--inTextBlock" href="https://docs.github.com/search-github/github-code-search/understanding-github-code-search-syntax">documentation</a>.
</p>
</form> </div>
<div data-target="custom-scopes.manageCustomScopesForm">
<div data-target="custom-scopes.list"></div>
</div>
</div>
</scrollable-region>
<div data-view-component="true" class="Overlay-footer Overlay-footer--alignEnd Overlay-footer--divided"> <button data-action="click:custom-scopes#customScopesCancel" type="button" data-view-component="true" class="btn"> Cancel
</button>
<button form="custom-scopes-dialog-form" data-action="click:custom-scopes#customScopesSubmit" data-target="custom-scopes.customScopesSubmitButton" type="submit" data-view-component="true" class="btn-primary btn"> Create saved search
</button>
</div>
</dialog></dialog-helper>
</custom-scopes>
</div>
</qbsearch-input><input type="hidden" data-csrf="true" class="js-data-jump-to-suggestions-path-csrf" value="gv4joOJ7Fly4TCfdjWY+V6rPSbaf8fJO9nseOaSLkTiykOsJexikdfJqGZ5JXBVWeZfaEdombLSw9PnFqdqfhw==" />
<div class="position-relative mr-lg-3 d-lg-inline-block">
<a href="/login?return_to=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2FHubTou%2FPNU%2Fwiki%2FLes-dictionnaires-sous-Unix"
class="HeaderMenu-link HeaderMenu-link--sign-in flex-shrink-0 no-underline d-block d-lg-inline-block border border-lg-0 rounded rounded-lg-0 p-2 p-lg-0"
data-hydro-click="{&quot;event_type&quot;:&quot;authentication.click&quot;,&quot;payload&quot;:{&quot;location_in_page&quot;:&quot;site header menu&quot;,&quot;repository_id&quot;:null,&quot;auth_type&quot;:&quot;SIGN_UP&quot;,&quot;originating_url&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/HubTou/PNU/wiki/Les-dictionnaires-sous-Unix&quot;,&quot;user_id&quot;:null}}" data-hydro-click-hmac="e18c83608a9108f82ec437203efc57c160b572538268a6f94a7a817a916219f0"
data-ga-click="(Logged out) Header, clicked Sign in, text:sign-in">
Sign in
</a>
</div>
<a href="/signup?ref_cta=Sign+up&amp;ref_loc=header+logged+out&amp;ref_page=%2F%3Cuser-name%3E%2F%3Crepo-name%3E%2Fwiki%2Fshow&amp;source=header-repo&amp;source_repo=HubTou%2FPNU"
class="HeaderMenu-link HeaderMenu-link--sign-up flex-shrink-0 d-none d-lg-inline-block no-underline border color-border-default rounded px-2 py-1"
data-hydro-click="{&quot;event_type&quot;:&quot;authentication.click&quot;,&quot;payload&quot;:{&quot;location_in_page&quot;:&quot;site header menu&quot;,&quot;repository_id&quot;:null,&quot;auth_type&quot;:&quot;SIGN_UP&quot;,&quot;originating_url&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/HubTou/PNU/wiki/Les-dictionnaires-sous-Unix&quot;,&quot;user_id&quot;:null}}" data-hydro-click-hmac="e18c83608a9108f82ec437203efc57c160b572538268a6f94a7a817a916219f0"
data-analytics-event="{&quot;category&quot;:&quot;Sign up&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:&quot;click to sign up for account&quot;,&quot;label&quot;:&quot;ref_page:/&lt;user-name&gt;/&lt;repo-name&gt;/wiki/show;ref_cta:Sign up;ref_loc:header logged out&quot;}"
>
Sign up
</a>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</header>
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<a href="/login?return_to=%2FHubTou%2FPNU" rel="nofollow" data-hydro-click="{&quot;event_type&quot;:&quot;authentication.click&quot;,&quot;payload&quot;:{&quot;location_in_page&quot;:&quot;notification subscription menu watch&quot;,&quot;repository_id&quot;:null,&quot;auth_type&quot;:&quot;LOG_IN&quot;,&quot;originating_url&quot;:&quot;https://github.com/HubTou/PNU/wiki/Les-dictionnaires-sous-Unix&quot;,&quot;user_id&quot;:null}}" data-hydro-click-hmac="5a7b6cf6135e8d882ba411ed4d83c659cc345b342e8c8040a09199f553cc4cf2" aria-label="You must be signed in to change notification settings" data-view-component="true" class="tooltipped tooltipped-s btn-sm btn"> <svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-bell mr-2">
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Hubert Tournier edited this page <relative-time datetime="2021-09-05T09:13:30Z" class="no-wrap">Sep 5, 2021</relative-time>
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<div class="markdown-body">
<div class="markdown-heading"><h1 class="heading-element">Les origines</h1><a id="user-content-les-origines" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Les origines" href="#les-origines"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">typo(1)</h2><a id="user-content-typo1" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: typo(1)" href="#typo1"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>La première commande Unix utilisant un dictionnaire semble être la commande <em>typo</em>, servant à "rechercher de possibles erreurs typographiques", qui est apparue avec la version 3 d'Unix en février 1973.</p>
<p>Sa <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V3/man/man1/typo.1" rel="nofollow">page de manuel</a> référence un dictionnaire nommé <em>/etc/w2006</em>, ensuite déplacé dans <em>/usr/lib/w2006</em> à partir de la V4.</p>
<p>La première version de ce fichier accessible via les archives de <a href="https://www.tuhs.org/" rel="nofollow">The Unix Heritage Society</a> est <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V5/usr/lib/w2006" rel="nofollow">celle de la V5</a>.
Ce dictionnaire (daté du 27 novembre 1974) compte alors 5.099 mots anglais.</p>
<p>Le fichier a ensuite été augmenté à 24.473 mots anglais (incluant des noms propres) avec la version 3BSD d'Unix, dans une version datée du 12 février 1979, et a perduré juqu'à la version 4.2BSD d'UNIX, dans une version datée du 2 janvier 1983, incluant quelques corrections mineures.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">spell(1)</h2><a id="user-content-spell1" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: spell(1)" href="#spell1"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>La commande <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spell_(Unix)" rel="nofollow">spell</a>, servant à "rechercher des erreurs orthographiques", a été diffusée avec la V6 d'Unix en mai 1975.</p>
<p>Elle référencait aussi bien <em>/usr/lib/w2006</em>, qu'un nouveau <em>/usr/dict/words</em>.</p>
<p>Sans que l'on sache s'il s'agissait de l'un ou de l'autre de ces dictionnaires, la <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V6/usr/man/man1/spell.1" rel="nofollow">page de manuel</a> indiquait :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>The dictionary cannot be distributed because of copyright limitations.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Comme l'indique le document <a href="http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~doug/reader.pdf" rel="nofollow">A Research UNIX Reader: Annotated Excerpts from the Programmer’s Manual, 1971-1986</a> de <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_McIlroy" rel="nofollow">Douglas McIlroy</a>:</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Doug (M. Douglas) McIlroy</em> exercised the right of a department head to muscle in on the original
two-user PDP-7 system. Later he contributed an eclectic bag of utilities: tmg for compiler writing, speak
for reading text aloud, diff, and join. <strong>He also collected dictionaries and made tools to use them: look (v7,
after a model by Ossanna), dict (v8), and spell (v7)</strong>.</p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Steve (Stephen C.) Johnson</em>’s yacc reduced Al (Alfred V.) Aho’s expertise in language theory to practice.
Upon that base Steve built the portable C compiler that was used to port the system itself and to evaluate
candidate instruction sets for unbuilt machines. <strong>Johnson made the first spell</strong>, worked on computer algebra,
and devised languages for VLSI layout.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Un autre document de Doug McIlroy, <a href="https://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~doug/spell.pdf" rel="nofollow">Development of a Spelling List</a>, détaille la création de ces outils et des dictionnaires associés.</p>
<p>Il montre notamment que le souci de l'époque n'était pas d'avoir un dictionnaire exhaustif, mais plutôt d'avoir un dictionnaire performant aussi léger que possible, compte-tenu de la puissance et des capacités de stockage de l'époque.</p>
<p>Dans <a href="https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/memoir.html" rel="nofollow">Unix: A History and a Memoir</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Kernighan" rel="nofollow">Brian Kernighan</a> indique à propos de Doug McIlroy :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>His version of <em>spell</em> made effective use of a dictionary and heuristics for identifying parts of speech
to find potential spelling mistakes, using only meager resources.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>... et des utilitaires de préparation documentaire, dont le langage C :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>It's hard to remember today, perhaps, that efficiency in both time and space were crucial
when machine capacities were expressed in kilobytes, not gigabytes. Every byte counted,
and so at some level did every instruction, so a language that economized on both was not just nice,
but a practical necessity.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>La première version accessible du fichier <em>/usr/dict/words</em> est <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V7/usr/dict/words" rel="nofollow">celle de la V7</a>.
Ce dictionnaire (daté du 20 janvier 1979) compte 24.001 mots anglais (incluant des noms propres), et semble avoir été fusionné avec <em>/usr/lib/w2006</em> dans les systèmes BSD de l'époque. La dernière version accessible est <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V8/usr/dict/words" rel="nofollow">celle de la V8</a>. Ce dictionnaire (daté du 12 avril 1985) compte 72.276 mots anglais.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">hangman, words(6)</h2><a id="user-content-hangman-words6" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: hangman, words(6)" href="#hangman-words6"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Commande "majeure" apparue dans la V7 d'Unix en janvier 1979, le bon vieux <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangman_(game)" rel="nofollow">jeu du pendu</a> !</p>
<p>Bien qu'anecdotique, sa <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V7/usr/man/man6/words.6" rel="nofollow">page de manuel</a> et son <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V7/usr/src/games/hangman.c" rel="nofollow">code source</a> nous apprennent toutefois que l'e(xtended)dict(ionary) dont il était question ci-dessus était localisé dans <em>/crp/dict/web2</em>:</p>
<div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content="WORDS(6) Games Manual WORDS(6)
NAME
hangman, words - word games
SYNOPSIS
/usr/games/hangman [ dict ]
/usr/games/words
DESCRIPTION
The optional argument names an alternate word list. The special name
`-a' gets a particular very large word list.
FILES
/usr/dict/words the regular word list
/crp/dict/web2 the -a word list
BUGS
UNIX software is distributed without the -a word list."><pre class="notranslate"><code>WORDS(6) Games Manual WORDS(6)
NAME
hangman, words - word games
SYNOPSIS
/usr/games/hangman [ dict ]
/usr/games/words
DESCRIPTION
The optional argument names an alternate word list. The special name
`-a' gets a particular very large word list.
FILES
/usr/dict/words the regular word list
/crp/dict/web2 the -a word list
BUGS
UNIX software is distributed without the -a word list.
</code></pre></div>
<p>Les versions modernes de FreeBSD sont aujourd'hui distribuées avec <a href="https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd-src/tree/main/share/dict">ce fichier</a>, le copyright ayant expiré:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Welcome to web2 (Webster's Second International) all 234,936 words worth.</p>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p>The 1934 copyright has lapsed, according to the supplier. The
supplemental 'web2a' list contains hyphenated terms as well as assorted
noun and adverbial phrases. The wordlist makes a dandy 'grep' victim.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Il s'agit donc du <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionary#Webster's_New_International_Dictionary_(second_edition,_1934)" rel="nofollow">Webster's New International Dictionary (second edition, 1934)</a>.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">look(1)</h2><a id="user-content-look1" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: look(1)" href="#look1"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Autre commande apparue dans la V7 d'Unix en janvier 1979, la commande <em>look</em> évoquée par Doug McIlroy, servant à "chercher des lignes dans une liste triée".</p>
<p>Comme l'indique sa <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V7/usr/man/man1/look.1" rel="nofollow">page de manuel</a>, le fichier <em>/usr/dict/words</em> était utilisé par défaut en l'absence de source spécifique.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">dict(7) et dict.sh</h2><a id="user-content-dict7-et-dictsh" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: dict(7) et dict.sh" href="#dict7-et-dictsh"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>D'autres fichiers de dictionnaires étaient utilisés par la commande <em>look</em>.</p>
<p>A partir de la V8 d'Unix en février 1985, apparaît une <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V8/usr/man/man7/dict.7" rel="nofollow">page de manuel</a> référencant les dictionnaires suivants, ainsi qu'un script <em>dict.sh</em> permettant d'y faire des recherches :</p>
<ul>
<li>
<em>webster</em>: Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, Seventh Edition, full text (/usr1/dict/w7full/*)</li>
<li>
<em>web7</em>: same, words only (/usr/dict/words)</li>
<li>
<em>etym[ology]</em>: inverted index to `webster' by root words (/usr1/dict/w7etym)</li>
<li>
<em>web2</em>: Merriam-Webster New International Dictionary, Second Edition, unabridged, words only (/usr1/dict/web2)</li>
<li>
<em>oxford</em>: The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Contemporary English, full text (/usr1/dict/oaldce/*)</li>
<li>
<em>spell</em>: word list of <a href="http://man.cat-v.org/unix_8th/1/spell" rel="nofollow">spell(1)</a> (/usr/dict/words)</li>
<li>
<em>acro[nym]</em>: 17000 AT&amp;T acronyms (/usr1/dict/acro)</li>
</ul>
<p>Outre le fait que tous ces dictionnaires ne soient pas de simples listes de mots et que les dictionnaires webster, oxford, web7 et etymology soient copyrightés et ne devraient pas être copiés sans autorisation, la page indique notamment que le fichier <em>/usr/dict/words</em> n'a pas partout le même contenu :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>/usr/dict/words - spell or web7, depending on machine</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Le script <a href="https://www.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V10/cmd/dict/dict.sh" rel="nofollow">dict.sh</a> est disponible dans le code source de la V10 d'Unix.
On y trouve la trace d'autres dictionnaires :</p>
<ul>
<li>
<em>pron</em>: Merriam-Webster Collegiate 7th ed, words and pronunciations</li>
<li>
<em>oed</em>: New English Dictionary (OED), fragment, bu-cz</li>
<li>
<em>slang</em>: New Dictionary of American Slang</li>
<li>
<em>thesaurus</em>: Collins Thesaurus</li>
<li>
<em>thesaurusa</em>: same, augmented with backreferences</li>
<li>
<em>names</em>: Oxford Dictionary of Names</li>
<li>
<em>places</em>: 128,000 US populated places</li>
<li>
<em>towns</em>: 45,000 US places</li>
</ul>
<p>Ainsi qu'un certain nombre de sous-commandes associées à ces dictionnaires spécifiques, qui ne sont donc jamais devenues <em>mainstream</em> du fait de la non diffusion des données associées : <em>colthlook</em>, <em>colthread</em>, <em>ldefine</em>, <em>namelook[1]</em>, <em>nameread</em>, <em>odefine</em>, <em>odqlook[1]</em>, <em>oedread</em>, <em>slanglook</em>, <em>wdefine</em>...</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">wwb(w)</h2><a id="user-content-wwbw" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: wwb(w)" href="#wwbw"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>A partir de la version 8 d'Unix en février 1985 est distribué le <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer%27s_Workbench" rel="nofollow">Writer's Workbench</a> (wwb), un ensemble de commandes destinées aux rédacteurs de documents (nombreux aux <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs" rel="nofollow">Bell Labs</a>), permettant notamment des corrections grammaticales et stylistiques, au-delà des corrections orthographiques.</p>
<p>Certaines commandes manipulaient des dictionnaires personnels ou spécialisés, dont pour l'anecdote, le <a href="https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V8/usr/src/cmd/wwb/wordlist.d" rel="nofollow">wwb/lib/wordlist</a> de la commande <a href="http://man.cat-v.org/unix_WWB/1/worduse" rel="nofollow">worduse</a> au format <a href="https://github.com/HubTou/strfile/blob/main/README.md">strfile</a> utilisé par les <a href="https://github.com/HubTou/fortune/blob/main/README.md">fortune</a> cookies :-)</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Les utilitaires de préparation documentaire aux Bell Labs</h2><a id="user-content-les-utilitaires-de-préparation-documentaire-aux-bell-labs" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Les utilitaires de préparation documentaire aux Bell Labs" href="#les-utilitaires-de-préparation-documentaire-aux-bell-labs"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Unix est né dans le centre de recherche d'AT&amp;T aux Bell Labs dont l'un des produits phares est naturellement la production de papiers de recherche, mais aussi un rayonnement à travers des publications d'ouvrages.</p>
<p>Toujours dans l'excellent <a href="https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/memoir.html" rel="nofollow">Unix: A History and a Memoir</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Kernighan" rel="nofollow">Brian Kernighan</a> explique comment un petit groupe de chercheurs issus de l'industrie a pu produire autant de livres influents :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>A third factor is more technical: the symbiosis among C and Unix as a programming environment,
document preparation as a research area, and writing about technical computer topics as a major activity.
This began with text formatting programs like Doug McIlroy's Roff, Joe Ossana's Nroff and Troff,
and then the preprocessors like Eqn, Tbl, and so on.
Those tools made it easier to produce documents that included ever more typographically challenging content,
like mathematics, tables, figures, diagrams, and graphs. That in turn led to better writing, because
all of these documents preparation programs shared a vital characteristic: they made it easy to make multiple
revisions of documents and always have a clean copy to work from, as opposed to the slow and painful alternative
of giving material to a typist and waiting days for it to come back.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Ceci pour rappeler que toutes ces commandes, loins d'être anecdotiques, correspondaient à un cas d'usage majeur d'Unix à cette époque, et que disposer d'un dictionnaire fiable et performant était donc essentiel.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h1 class="heading-element">Les dictionnaires Français pour Unix</h1><a id="user-content-les-dictionnaires-français-pour-unix" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Les dictionnaires Français pour Unix" href="#les-dictionnaires-français-pour-unix"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Faute de dictionnaire français (voire anglais) disponible, les utilisateurs francophones ont été initialement privés de certains de ces utilitaires de préparation documentaire. La réponse au besoin est d'abord venu d'un collectif d'utilisateurs, puis de chercheurs de la francophonie.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Le Dico</h2><a id="user-content-le-dico" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Le Dico" href="#le-dico"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Le plus ancien dictionnaire Français pour Unix dont j'aie connaissance est <a href="https://manpages.debian.org/unstable/le-dico-de-rene-cougnenc/dico.1.fr.html" rel="nofollow">Le Dico</a> de <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cougnenc" rel="nofollow">René Cougnenc</a>, apparu en 1992 sous forme de logiciel pour Linux, puis pour MS-DOS, ensuite porté sous Windows par <a href="http://leserged.online.fr/down.php" rel="nofollow">Serge Delbono</a>.</p>
<p>Il est toujours diffusé aujourd'hui, par exemple <a href="http://snapshot.debian.org/package/le-dico-de-rene-cougnenc/" rel="nofollow">sous Linux Debian</a>.</p>
<p>La <a href="http://snapshot.debian.org/package/le-dico-de-rene-cougnenc/1.4-1/" rel="nofollow">version 1.4</a> comporte 94.836 mots, plus 39.072 communes de France.</p>
<p>Je ne résiste pas au plaisir de reproduire le début de son fichier README.TXT, qui fleure bon la grande époque des <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" rel="nofollow">BBS</a> :</p>
<div class="snippet-clipboard-content notranslate position-relative overflow-auto" data-snippet-clipboard-copy-content=" +--------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
| LL EEEEEEE DDDDDD IIII CCCCC OOOOO |
| LL EE DD DD II CC CC OO OO |
| LL EEEE DD DD II CC OO OO |
| LL EE DD DD II CC OO OO |
| LL EE DD DD II CC CC OO OO |
| LLLLLLL EEEEEEE DDDDDD IIII CCCCC OOOOO |
| |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
&quot;Le Dico&quot; est une premiere Francaise !
Plus de 100.000 elements comportant noms communs, verbes,
adjectifs, conjugaisons et pluriels complexes, ainsi que les
principaux CODES POSTAUX, FRANCAIS, soigneusement elabores par un
collectif d'utilisateurs de BBS Francais, et mis en DOMAINE
PUBLIC au format ASCII ACCENTUE dans la mesure du possible, avec
soit le jeu IBM pour MS/DOS, soit le jeu ISO 8859-1 pour les
autres systemes.
Tout le monde en parlait, tout le monde cherchait quelque
chose de ce genre, eh bien nous l'avons fait.
Le Dico c'est aussi une petite commande simple permettant sous
MS-DOS ou Unix de trouver en un clin d'oeil un mot que l'on ne
sait pas trop orthographier."><pre class="notranslate"><code> +--------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
| LL EEEEEEE DDDDDD IIII CCCCC OOOOO |
| LL EE DD DD II CC CC OO OO |
| LL EEEE DD DD II CC OO OO |
| LL EE DD DD II CC OO OO |
| LL EE DD DD II CC CC OO OO |
| LLLLLLL EEEEEEE DDDDDD IIII CCCCC OOOOO |
| |
+--------------------------------------------------------------+
"Le Dico" est une premiere Francaise !
Plus de 100.000 elements comportant noms communs, verbes,
adjectifs, conjugaisons et pluriels complexes, ainsi que les
principaux CODES POSTAUX, FRANCAIS, soigneusement elabores par un
collectif d'utilisateurs de BBS Francais, et mis en DOMAINE
PUBLIC au format ASCII ACCENTUE dans la mesure du possible, avec
soit le jeu IBM pour MS/DOS, soit le jeu ISO 8859-1 pour les
autres systemes.
Tout le monde en parlait, tout le monde cherchait quelque
chose de ce genre, eh bien nous l'avons fait.
Le Dico c'est aussi une petite commande simple permettant sous
MS-DOS ou Unix de trouver en un clin d'oeil un mot que l'on ne
sait pas trop orthographier.
</code></pre></div>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">IREQ-Francais</h2><a id="user-content-ireq-francais" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: IREQ-Francais" href="#ireq-francais"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Produit au Canada entre 1993 et 1996 par <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/martinboyer/" rel="nofollow">Martin Boyer</a>, alors chercheur à l'<a href="https://www.hydroquebec.com/innovation/fr/" rel="nofollow">Institut de Recherche d'Hydro Québec</a> (IREQ), ce dictionnaire français est directement prévu pour être utilisé avec <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispell" rel="nofollow">ispell</a>, l'un des successeurs de <em>spell</em>.</p>
<p>Dans sa <a href="http://ftp.lip6.fr/pub/ispell/francais/" rel="nofollow">version 1.4</a>, il contient 24.419 mots simples et 23.199 mots "affixés", représentant un total de 221.376 mots ou variations de mots.</p>
<p>Pour faciliter la correction du dictionnaire, les mots sont groupés selon leur type
(noms communs et adjectifs, noms propres, verbes du premier groupe, verbes du deuxième groupe, etc.).
Un fichier spécial décrit les règles de modification des racines qui permettent de créer plusieurs mots à partir de variations sur une même racine.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Francais-GUTenberg</h2><a id="user-content-francais-gutenberg" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Francais-GUTenberg" href="#francais-gutenberg"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Produit en Suisse de 1998 à 1999 par Christophe Pythoud, qui travaillait à la <a href="https://www.unil.ch/sli/home.html" rel="nofollow">section de Linguistique</a> de l'<a href="https://www.unil.ch/index.html" rel="nofollow">Université de Lausanne</a> (UNIL), avec le soutien de l'<a href="https://www.gutenberg.eu.org/" rel="nofollow">association Gutenberg</a>, ce dictionnaire français est lui aussi prévu pour être utilisé avec <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispell" rel="nofollow">ispell</a>. Il succède directement au dictionnaire IREQ-Francais dont il entend <a href="cahiers.gutenberg.eu.org/cg-bin/article/CG_1998___28-29_252_0.pdf">corriger les inconvénients liés à son utilisation
avec ispell</a>.</p>
<p>Le site n'est aujourd'hui accessible que par son <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000520082704/http://www.unil.ch:80/ling/cp/frgut.html#telecharge" rel="nofollow">archive Wayback Machine</a>, mais son fichier source est disponible en <a href="https://packages.debian.org/stable/text/ifrench-gut" rel="nofollow">paquet Debian</a> et une <a href="https://chrplr.github.io/openlexicon/datasets-info/Liste-de-mots-francais-Gutenberg/liste.de.mots.francais.frgut.txt" rel="nofollow">liste de 336.531 mots du français</a> en a été extraite en février 1999 et reste accessible sur le <a href="https://chrplr.github.io/openlexicon/datasets-info/Liste-de-mots-francais-Gutenberg/README-liste-francais-Gutenberg.html" rel="nofollow">page openlexicon</a> de <a href="http://www.pallier.org/liste-de-mots-francais.html" rel="nofollow">Christophe Pallier</a>. La <a href="https://chrplr.github.io/openlexicon/datasets-info/Liste-de-mots-francais-Gutenberg/Francais-Gutenberg-reference.pdf" rel="nofollow">documentation de référence</a> est également accessible.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">GNU Aspell French Word List</h2><a id="user-content-gnu-aspell-french-word-list" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: GNU Aspell French Word List" href="#gnu-aspell-french-word-list"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Ce dictionnaire, dont la dernière version date de 2002, a initialement été préparé par <a href="http://aspellfr.free.fr/aspell/" rel="nofollow">Rémi Vanicat</a> du <a href="https://www.labri.fr/" rel="nofollow">Laboratoire Bordelais de Recherche en Informatique</a> (LaBRI). Il a été prévu pour être utilisé avec <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Aspell" rel="nofollow">GNU aspell</a>, l'un des successeurs de <em>ispell</em>.</p>
<p>Sa liste de mots est un mélange des dictionnaires de l'IREQ et de l'UNIL/Association GUTenberg mentionnés ci-dessus.</p>
<p>Il est naturellement <a href="https://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/aspell/dict/fr/" rel="nofollow">téléchargeable</a> sur le site du <a href="https://www.gnu.org/" rel="nofollow">projet GNU</a>.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Grammalecte dic</h2><a id="user-content-grammalecte-dic" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Grammalecte dic" href="#grammalecte-dic"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p><code>A renseigner...</code></p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h1 class="heading-element">Les autres dictionnaires francophones</h1><a id="user-content-les-autres-dictionnaires-francophones" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Les autres dictionnaires francophones" href="#les-autres-dictionnaires-francophones"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>On trouve plusieurs dictionnaires francophones <strong>téléchargeables sur le Web pour utilisation hors ligne</strong>, mais la plupart sont relativement peu accessibles et rarement directement utilisables sous Unix.</p>
<p>Voici une liste commentée de ceux que j'ai pu identifier:</p>
<table role="table">
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Editeur</th>
<th>Nom</th>
<th>Contenu</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>
<a href="http://abu.cnam.fr/INFO/" rel="nofollow">Association des Bibliophiles Universels</a> (ABU)</td>
<td><a href="http://abu.cnam.fr/DICO/" rel="nofollow">Liste de mots</a></td>
<td>255.282 mots communs avec classe grammaticale<br>(dont mots accordés et 6.590 verbes conjugués)<br>35.957 communes françaises avec code postal<br>12.437 prénoms<br>1.403 difficultés orthographiques<br>170 pays et lieux<br>Très intéressant, malheureusement le site n'a pas été mis à jour depuis 2002 et les adresses de contact ne fonctionnent plus.<br><a href="http://abu.cnam.fr/DICO/" rel="nofollow">Téléchargement</a> - dernière mise à jour en 2002 au plus tard<br><a href="http://abu.cnam.fr/cgi-bin/donner_licence" rel="nofollow">Licence ABU</a><br><a href="https://github.com/HubTou/dict-fr-ABU">Package Python</a> pour utilisation directe sous Unix ou autres</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="https://www.freelang.com/infos.php" rel="nofollow">Freelang</a></td>
<td><a href="https://www.freelang.com/dictionnaire/dic-francais.php" rel="nofollow">Liste de mots français</a></td>
<td>22.739 mots (dont noms propres, prénoms, lieux).<br><a href="https://www.freelang.com/download/misc/liste_francais.zip" rel="nofollow">Téléchargement</a> - dernière mise à jour 26/3/2003<br><a href="https://www.freelang.com/dictionnaire/dic-copyrights.php" rel="nofollow">Licence Freeware</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<a href="https://infolingu.univ-mlv.fr/LADL/Historique.html" rel="nofollow">Laboratoire d'Automatique Documentaire et Linguistique</a> (LADL),<br>aujourd'hui intégré à l'<a href="https://igm.univ-gustave-eiffel.fr/" rel="nofollow">Institut Gaspard Monge</a> (IGM) de l'<a href="https://www.univ-gustave-eiffel.fr/" rel="nofollow">Université Gustave Eiffel</a>
</td>
<td><a href="http://infolingu.univ-mlv.fr/DonneesLinguistiques/Presentation.html" rel="nofollow">Dictionnaire DELA fléchi du français</a></td>
<td>Comporte 683.824 entrées simples pour 102.073 lemmes différents et 108.436 entrées composées pour 83.604 lemmes différents<br><a href="https://infolingu.univ-mlv.fr/DonneesLinguistiques/Dictionnaires/telechargement.html" rel="nofollow">Téléchargement</a> - dernière mise à jour le 16/3/2006<br><a href="http://infolingu.univ-mlv.fr/DonneesLinguistiques/Lexiques-Grammaires/lgpllr.html" rel="nofollow">Licence LGPLLR</a><br><a href="https://github.com/HubTou/dict-fr-DELA">1er package Python</a> pour utilisation directe sous Unix ou autres<br><a href="https://github.com/HubTou/dict-fr-AU-DELA">2ème package Python</a> pour une version avec corrections</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>...</code></td>
<td><code>Lexique / Open Lexicon FR</code></td>
<td><code>...</code></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>...</code></td>
<td><code>DEM et LVF</code></td>
<td><code>...</code></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><code>...</code></td>
<td><code>WiktionaryX</code></td>
<td><code>...</code></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><code>Cette section est en cours de rédaction...</code></p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Les recherches en "documentation automatique" en France</h2><a id="user-content-les-recherches-en-documentation-automatique-en-france" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Les recherches en &quot;documentation automatique&quot; en France" href="#les-recherches-en-documentation-automatique-en-france"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Pour faire le pendant de ce qui se passait aux Bell Labs dans les années 1970 et cette "killer application" locale qu'était la préparation documentaire, on peut signaler des travaux de recherche publique antérieurs, tant aux Etats-Unis (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" rel="nofollow">Chomsky</a>...), qu'en France.</p>
<p>L'ouvrage <a href="https://livre.fnac.com/a2605677/MOUNIER-KHUN-L-informatique-en-france-de-la-seconde-guerre-mondiale-au-plan-calcul" rel="nofollow">L'informatique en France</a> de <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Eric_Mounier-Kuhn" rel="nofollow">Pierre-Eric Mounier-Kuhn</a>, en 2010, mentionne ainsi dès 1960 la création d'une Section d'automatique documentaire à l'<a href="https://www.lip6.fr/recherche/team.php?acronyme=IBP%201946-1969" rel="nofollow">Institut Blaise Pascal</a>, où :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>La recherche automatique s'appuie sur un <em>thesaurus</em> mis en mémoire : synonymes, mots voisins ou composés...
réseau reliant les mots les uns aux autres.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Plus loin :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>En 1963 la Section d'analyse documentaire a entrepris, sous contrat DGRST, d'inventorier
<code>les études et applications intéressant le traitement automatique de l'information non numérique, principalement la documentation et la traduction automatiques</code>. Le but est de permettre aux chercheurs
de s'informer des principaux travaux menés dans ces domaines à travers le monde.
Ce Groupe d'études sur l'information scientifique [...] devient en 1966 <code>laboratoire d'automatique doumentaire et linguistique</code>.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Le fameux LADL de <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Gross" rel="nofollow">Maurice Gross</a> à l'origine des dictionnaires DELA...</p>
<p>En conclusion sur les enjeux du sujet :</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Retenons les principaux traits de l'histoire de l'automatique documentaire au <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" rel="nofollow">CNRS</a>:</p>
<ul>
<li>Elle est initiée par des utilisateurs de machines informatiques, qui veulent développer des applications nouvelles, sont confrontés à des problèmes fondamentaux et décident de s'y attaquer en quittant leur discipline d'origine.</li>
<li>[...] La discipline vers laquelle ils se tournent d'abord pour chercher des solutions est la linguistique. [...]</li>
<li>Au-delà des recherches dont elle est l'objet, l'automatique documentaire a de considérables enjeux économiques dans la défense, les administrations et les grandes entreprises. Toutefois la vision prophétique de la recherche d'information, de l'indexation, du dictionnaire des paradigmes est sans doute trop en avance pour avoir des impacts directs sur le plan pratique.</li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<p>On constate en effet, bien que rétrospectivement, le poids économique de la recherche d'information, héritière de ces travaux de documentation automatique, avec notamment le développement de Google, qui s'est dès l'origine donné pour mission d'<a href="https://www.lemonde.fr/pixels/article/2018/09/04/google-a-t-il-accompli-la-mission-qu-il-s-etait-fixee_5349811_4408996.html" rel="nofollow">organiser les informations à l'échelle mondiale dans le but de les rendre accessibles et utiles à tous</a>.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Et les dictionnaires pour le projet PNU dans tout ça ?</h2><a id="user-content-et-les-dictionnaires-pour-le-projet-pnu-dans-tout-ça-" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Et les dictionnaires pour le projet PNU dans tout ça ?" href="#et-les-dictionnaires-pour-le-projet-pnu-dans-tout-ça-"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Se lancer dans un projet tel que <a href="https://github.com/HubTou/PNU/blob/main/README.md">PNU</a> m'a confronté d'emblée à la nécessité de disposer d'une documentation technique correcte, et donc de travailler assez tôt dans le projet sur les outils de préparation documentaire, dont <em>man</em> constitue la partie émergée de l'iceberg, et <em>roff</em> et ses variantes la partie immergée. Le <em>contenu</em> conservant toutefois plus d'importance que les <em>contenants</em>...</p>
<p>La particularité d'Unix étant d'être, bien plus qu'un système d'exploitation, un véritable système de traitement de données via ses multiples utilitaires et filtres de <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Unix_text_processing_utilities" rel="nofollow">traitement de texte</a> (au sens original et non dévoyé du terme), le besoin de disposer de dictionnaires de langues a suivi très rapidement.</p>
<p>Mais c'est également une nécessité pour d'autres domaines qui m'intéressent comme la cryptographie et les jeux de lettres.</p>
<p>On pourrait se demander à quoi bon consacrer tant d'efforts à refaire ce qui existe déjà ? Au-delà du prétexte pédagogique et de l'occasion de mise en pratique de "nouveaux" savoirs techniques, il s'agit surtout d'un voyage mémoriel qui me permet de remettre en perspective l'Histoire de ma Discipline.</p>
<div class="markdown-heading"><h2 class="heading-element">Historique des dictionnaires électroniques du français</h2><a id="user-content-historique-des-dictionnaires-électroniques-du-français" class="anchor" aria-label="Permalink: Historique des dictionnaires électroniques du français" href="#historique-des-dictionnaires-électroniques-du-français"><svg class="octicon octicon-link" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" height="16" aria-hidden="true"><path d="m7.775 3.275 1.25-1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1 4.95 4.95l-2.5 2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1-4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l2.5-2.5a2.002 2.002 0 0 0-2.83-2.83l-1.25 1.25a.751.751 0 0 1-1.042-.018.751.751 0 0 1-.018-1.042Zm-4.69 9.64a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 2.83 0l1.25-1.25a.751.751 0 0 1 1.042.018.751.751 0 0 1 .018 1.042l-1.25 1.25a3.5 3.5 0 1 1-4.95-4.95l2.5-2.5a3.5 3.5 0 0 1 4.95 0 .751.751 0 0 1-.018 1.042.751.751 0 0 1-1.042.018 1.998 1.998 0 0 0-2.83 0l-2.5 2.5a1.998 1.998 0 0 0 0 2.83Z"></path></svg></a></div>
<p>Voici deux liens intéressants pour approfondir le sujet et en apprendre plus sur son histoire :</p>
<ul>
<li>
<a href="https://books.openedition.org/pur/65603?lang=fr" rel="nofollow">Les dictionnaires de langue française : de la genèse à l’Internet, un outil pour tous</a>, de Jean Pruvost, dans <a href="https://books.openedition.org/pur/65522" rel="nofollow">Le français, une langue pour réussir</a> sous la direction de Françoise Argod-Dutard, aux Presses universitaires de Rennes, en 2014</li>
<li>
<a href="https://www.persee.fr/issue/lfr_0023-8368_1990_num_87_1?sectionId=lfr_0023-8368_1990_num_87_1_6321" rel="nofollow">Langue française, n°87, 1990. Dictionnaires électroniques du français</a>, sous la direction de Blandine Courtois et Max Silberztein. Avec un focus très fort, voire exclusif, sur les dictionnaires DELA.</li>
</ul>
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<clipboard-copy aria-label="Copy" class="ClipboardButton btn btn-invisible js-clipboard-copy m-2 p-0 tooltipped-no-delay d-flex flex-justify-center flex-items-center" data-copy-feedback="Copied!" data-tooltip-direction="w">
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-copy js-clipboard-copy-icon">
<path d="M0 6.75C0 5.784.784 5 1.75 5h1.5a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.5h-1.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v7.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h7.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-1.5a.75.75 0 0 1 1.5 0v1.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 9.25 16h-7.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 0 14.25Z"></path><path d="M5 1.75C5 .784 5.784 0 6.75 0h7.5C15.216 0 16 .784 16 1.75v7.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 14.25 11h-7.5A1.75 1.75 0 0 1 5 9.25Zm1.75-.25a.25.25 0 0 0-.25.25v7.5c0 .138.112.25.25.25h7.5a.25.25 0 0 0 .25-.25v-7.5a.25.25 0 0 0-.25-.25Z"></path>
</svg>
<svg aria-hidden="true" height="16" viewBox="0 0 16 16" version="1.1" width="16" data-view-component="true" class="octicon octicon-check js-clipboard-check-icon color-fg-success d-none">
<path d="M13.78 4.22a.75.75 0 0 1 0 1.06l-7.25 7.25a.75.75 0 0 1-1.06 0L2.22 9.28a.751.751 0 0 1 .018-1.042.751.751 0 0 1 1.042-.018L6 10.94l6.72-6.72a.75.75 0 0 1 1.06 0Z"></path>
</svg>
</clipboard-copy>
</div>
</template>
</div>
<div id="js-global-screen-reader-notice" class="sr-only" aria-live="polite" aria-atomic="true" ></div>
<div id="js-global-screen-reader-notice-assertive" class="sr-only" aria-live="assertive" aria-atomic="true"></div>
</body>
</html>
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